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{#心经的人生智慧}
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# The Life Wisdom of the Heart Sutra
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------A talk given at the Australia Mingyue Buddhist Society, 1995
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Venerable Master Jiqun
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[One. What Is the Heart Sutra? [2](#一心经者何)](#一心经者何)
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[Two. The Great Wisdom of Life [3](#二人生的大智慧)](#二人生的大智慧)
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[1. Cognitive Confusion [3](#认识上的迷惑)](#认识上的迷惑)
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[2. The Suffering Caused by Attachment and Desire [4](#执著欲望带来的痛苦)](#执著欲望带来的痛苦)
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[Three. The Principle of Liberation from Suffering [8](#三解脱痛苦的原理)](#三解脱痛苦的原理)
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[1. You Must Know Suffering to End It [9](#认识苦才能解除苦)](#认识苦才能解除苦)
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[2. Searching for the Source of Suffering [10](#寻找痛苦之源)](#寻找痛苦之源)
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[Four. The Non-duality of Existence and Emptiness [11](#四有空不二)](#四有空不二)
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[1. \"Existence\" as Taught in the Scriptures [12](#经典所说的有)](#经典所说的有)
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[2. \"Emptiness\" as Taught in the Scriptures [13](#经典所说的空)](#经典所说的空)
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[Five. The True Nature of All Phenomena [15](#五诸法真实相)](#五诸法真实相)
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[1. The Mark of Emptiness [15](#空-相)](#空-相)
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[2. Neither Arising Nor Ceasing [16](#不生不灭)](#不生不灭)
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[3. Neither Defiled Nor Pure [17](#不垢不净)](#不垢不净)
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[4. Neither Increasing Nor Decreasing [19](#不增不减)](#不增不减)
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[Six. Not Abiding in the World [19](#六不住世间)](#六不住世间)
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[1. The Aggregates, Sense Spheres, and Elements [20](#蕴处界)](#蕴处界)
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[2. How Self-attachment Manifests [20](#我执的表现)](#我执的表现)
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[3. The Faults of Attachment [22](#执著的过患)](#执著的过患)
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[4. How Can We Stop Abiding? [24](#怎样才能不住)](#怎样才能不住)
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[Seven. Transcending Birth and Death [25](#七超越生死)](#七超越生死)
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[1. Ignorance [25](#无-明)](#无-明)
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[2. Volitional Formations [26](#行)](#行)
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[3. Consciousness [26](#识)](#识)
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[4. Name and Form [27](#名-色)](#名-色)
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[5. The Six Sense Bases [28](#六-入)](#六-入)
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[6. Contact [28](#触)](#触)
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[7. Feeling [29](#受)](#受)
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[8. Craving [29](#爱)](#爱)
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[9. Clinging [30](#取)](#取)
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[10. Becoming [30](#有)](#有)
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[11. Birth [30](#生)](#生)
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[12. Aging and Death [31](#老-死)](#老-死)
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[Eight. Afflictions Are Bodhi [32](#八烦恼即菩提)](#八烦恼即菩提)
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[1. The Truth of Suffering [32](#苦-谛)](#苦-谛)
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[2. The Truth of the Cause of Suffering [34](#集-谛)](#集-谛)
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[3. The Truth of Cessation [35](#灭-谛)](#灭-谛)
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[4. The Truth of the Path [35](#道-谛)](#道-谛)
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[Nine. A Life of Liberation and Freedom [38](#九解脱自在的人生)](#九解脱自在的人生)
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[1. The Mind Without Hindrance [38](#心无挂碍)](#心无挂碍)
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[2. At Ease with Life and Death [40](#生死自在)](#生死自在)
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[3. Stilling Deluded Thoughts [41](#息灭妄想)](#息灭妄想)
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[Ten. The Only Path to Buddhahood [43](#十成佛的唯一途径)](#十成佛的唯一途径)
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[1. Studying the Buddha-dharma Must Begin with the Prajna of the Written Word [44](#学佛须从文字般若下手)](#学佛须从文字般若下手)
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[2. The Fivefold Dharma Body of the Hearer Vehicle Has Wisdom at Its Core [44](#声闻乘的五分法身以慧为核心)](#声闻乘的五分法身以慧为核心)
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[3. The Six Paramitas of the Bodhisattva Path Take Prajna as Their Guide [45](#菩萨道的六度法门以般若为导)](#菩萨道的六度法门以般若为导)
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[Eleven. The Supreme Dharma Gate [48](#十一无上法门)](#十一无上法门)
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[Twelve. Exhortation [49](#十二劝-勉)](#十二劝-勉)
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{#一心经者何}
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## One. What Is the Heart Sutra?
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The *Heart Sutra*, whose full title is the *Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra*, is a Dharma treasure that is at once the most concise in wording and the richest in content among all Buddhist texts. Like the *Diamond Sutra*, it has circulated widely throughout society for over a thousand years, its influence enduring without decline.
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Within Buddhism, the *Heart Sutra* belongs to the Prajna (Perfection of Wisdom) class of scriptures. According to the Tiantai school's classification of the Prajna sutras, it is designated as the Shared Teaching. The term "shared" means it connects both backward and forward. Connecting backward refers to its relationship with the Agama teachings. In the Agama scriptures, the Buddha examined the phenomena of existence, pointing out their nature of suffering, impermanence, and non-self. He also spoke of emptiness, but not in great depth. It was only with the Prajna teachings that the meaning of emptiness was taken to its ultimate conclusion, building on the Agama foundation. Connecting forward refers to the relationship between the Prajna scriptures and texts such as the *Avatamsaka*, *Nirvana*, and *Vimalakirti* sutras.
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The empty nature of conditioned arising revealed by the Prajna teachings is the theoretical cornerstone upon which all Mahayana scriptures and teachings are built. To grasp the correct view of the Prajna Middle Way accurately is of vital importance for studying the teachings through hearing and reflection, and for guiding one's practice.
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Ordinarily, scriptures consist of three parts: the introduction, the main discourse, and the dissemination section. The *Heart Sutra*, however, differs from other scriptures in having only the main discourse. This has led some to question its completeness as an independent text. On this matter, the contemporary authority on Buddhist studies, Venerable Yinshun, provided an explanation in his *Lectures on the Prajna Sutras*. Ven. Yinshun held that the *Heart Sutra* translated by Master Xuanzang was extracted independently from the six-hundred-volume *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra*. In the chapter "Learning and Contemplation" of the *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra*, there is a passage essentially identical to the *Heart Sutra*, spoken directly by the Buddha to Shariputra. In other words, the *Heart Sutra* is the very essence of the *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra*, which the ancient masters excerpted for easier recitation and dissemination.
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The *Heart Sutra* has many Chinese translations. The *Collection of Translations and Commentaries on the Prajna Heart Sutra*, compiled by Mr. Fang Guangchang, contains eighteen versions. Among these, the most widely circulated in Buddhist circles is the translation by the Tripitaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang dynasty. As for commentaries on this sutra, there have been as many as a hundred since ancient times, which attests to the extent of its recitation and study.
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{#二人生的大智慧}
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## Two. The Great Wisdom of Life
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The full title of this sutra is the *Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra*. In Buddhist texts, the title of a scripture often captures the essence of its entire content. Therefore, when studying a scripture, we must first understand the profound meaning embedded in its title.
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Let us first explain *prajna*. Prajna is a transliteration of Sanskrit. In translating Buddhist scriptures and treatises, two approaches are used: transliteration by sound and translation by meaning. Transliteration is usually reserved for special circumstances. When translating scriptures, Tripitaka Master Xuanzang established the rule of "five kinds of non-translation": first, terms not translated out of reverence; second, terms not translated to follow established convention; third, terms not translated due to multiple meanings; fourth, terms not translated because of their esoteric nature; fifth, terms not translated because no equivalent exists in the Chinese language. "Prajna" falls under the first category---it is not translated out of reverence. At the same time, Chinese lacks a word that corresponds to the full meaning of prajna, which makes it a case of the fifth category as well. Hence, transliteration is used.
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Since prajna is a transliteration of Sanskrit, we obviously cannot interpret it literally from the characters. So what profound meaning does prajna carry? For the convenience of understanding, ancient masters sometimes rendered prajna as "wisdom," but it is clearly different from what we ordinarily call worldly wisdom. Worldly wisdom is limited, flawed, and further tainted by afflictions; it is incapable of knowing the true nature of the universe and human life. Prajna wisdom, by contrast, is boundless, perfect, and pure. It enables us to thoroughly comprehend the true nature of the universe and human life, and thereby to completely eradicate the afflictions born of ignorance.
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Thus, prajna plays a pivotal role in transforming our lives. Without wisdom, people fall into cognitive confusion, and their attachments bring them suffering.
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{#认识上的迷惑}
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### 1. Cognitive Confusion
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Ordinary beings, troubled by ignorance, are constantly caught in various states of confusion. They can neither thoroughly understand themselves nor truly know the world. Some might say: surely we understand ourselves, do we not? This question may sound perplexing, yet it is precisely the case.
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Let me ask: does anyone know who "I" am? The question seems simple, and someone might answer without a second thought: "I am me, of course!" In truth, this is an extraordinarily profound question. We believe that "I" am me. But then, is the body "me," or is the mind "me"? If the body is "me," the body is merely a provisional combination of the four great elements. When the four elements disperse, where is "me"? If the mind is "me," the mind is simply an accumulation of experiences and concepts, with no independent intrinsic nature to speak of. Clearly, this question is far from as easy to answer as we might assume. Hence, Western philosophy has a famous saying---know thyself.
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"Where does life come from, and where does death lead?" is another great puzzle of human existence. I recall a Western philosopher once offering a vivid metaphor for life: life is like crossing a bridge, and the bridge's entrance, its far end, and the space beneath are all shrouded in clouds and mist; people pass from one bank of clouds to another. From the perspective of the Buddhadharma, our arrival in this world is merely the beginning of one phase of life. When we die, that is only the conclusion of this phase; it does not mean life ends entirely. In fact, life continues on and on, birth after birth. In the vast, long river of life, this present life is but a fleeting segment. Therefore, while we attend to our present existence, we must also seek the answer to "where does life come from, and where does death lead?" This is a personal question that everyone must resolve.
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In our daily lives, everyone cares deeply about their own destiny. So what is destiny? Does destiny exist in human life? If it does, what factors determine it? What force drives it? Views on these questions vary widely. Some do not believe in destiny, holding that the course of life follows no predetermined pattern. Others firmly believe in destiny, convinced that some unseen force governs us. Moreover, some think destiny cannot be changed, while others believe it can. Some believe the force governing destiny comes from gods and spirits; others hold that the opportunity to reshape destiny rests in our own hands... So what, after all, is destiny?
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The law of cause and effect, or karmic retribution, is another topic that easily stirs controversy. From certain angles, everything in the world seems to have its own causes and effects: success comes from effort, harvest follows sowing, as the saying goes, "plant melons and you get melons; plant beans and you get beans." Yet from other angles, life presents many phenomena that are hard to explain. For instance, some who do all manner of evil live carefree and untroubled, while some who do good and accumulate virtue live in poverty and destitution. As a result, most people accept a one-life view and do not believe in karmic retribution. But most of the world's religions do accept the principle of cause and effect. So, does karmic retribution truly exist?
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Why do people live? What is the meaning of existence? These are questions that also frequently trouble people. Living in this world, many do not know what they are actually living for. They merely follow conventions set by those who came before: go to school, work, marry, have children, seek promotion and wealth, indulge in sensual pleasures, until the day they breathe their last. Generation after generation, people repeat a nearly identical life pattern, yet seldom reflect on whether such a life can fulfill the true meaning of human existence.
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How can we unlock the greatest value of life? To answer this, we must know: what, ultimately, do people live for?
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{#执著欲望带来的痛苦}
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### 2. The Suffering Caused by Attachment and Desire
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The Buddhist scriptures describe the world we inhabit as the Realm of Desire. Its defining characteristic is found in a single word: desire. It can be said that everyone in this world lives amid intense desires. What is desire? Desire is the inner need of life, both physiological and psychological. These desires, arising from body and mind, manifest in countless varied forms.
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In the scriptures, desires are briefly summarized as the "five desires": form, sound, scent, taste, and touch. The desire for form means the eyes wish to see attractive colors. The desire for sound means the ears wish to hear pleasant tones. The desire for scent means the nose wishes to smell fragrant aromas. The desire for taste means the tongue wishes to savor delicious flavors. The desire for touch means the body wishes to be in comfortable surroundings. In the Buddhist scriptures, "five desires" sometimes has another reference: wealth, sex, fame, food, and sleep. The desire for wealth is the craving for money and riches. The desire for sex is the craving for romantic attachment. The desire for fame is the craving for reputation and status. The desire for food is the craving for eating and drinking. The desire for sleep is the craving for rest. Sentient beings perpetuate their lives in the unceasing pursuit of these five desires. When these desires are satisfied, temporary happiness arises. Therefore, what we ordinarily call happiness in life is nothing more than the satisfaction of desires.
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But desires are unstable. Although human desires are linked to material conditions, there is no concrete, universal standard for what conditions will satisfy them. In general, desires tend to rise as material conditions improve---the tide lifts all boats. For the ancients, ample food and warm clothing sufficed for contentment and happiness. For people today, having enough to eat and wear hardly satisfies them, much less generates a sense of happiness. As material prosperity grows, desires swell along with it---and they swell without limit, keeping people forever caught in endless pursuit.
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In their expression, desires show three major characteristics: possessiveness, comparison, and competition.
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*[Possessiveness]*
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Driven by desire, people perpetually seek to possess more. Before basic needs of food and warmth are met, people only ask for enough to eat, wear, and a shelter from wind and rain. But once these basic needs are secured, they soon grow dissatisfied and begin to pursue a more convenient and comfortable life. Washing clothes is too much trouble---better to have a washing machine. Walking is too tiring---better to have a private car. Spare time after work is boring---there should be a television for entertainment. Traveling is enjoyable, but even better to have a camcorder to record everything... The more demands we have, the more things we need to acquire, and the more money we spend. But money does not fall from the sky. Accordingly, to earn money and to satisfy our ever-growing desires, we must work relentlessly, toiling without pause.
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Once material wealth is secured, people yearn for fame and status. In short, whatever others have, I must have; what others do not have, I must also have. Desire often makes us spend our entire lives in a cycle of constant pursuit and possession. One desire fulfilled, a new one quickly follows. Those ruled by desire often overlook what they already have and rush to chase what does not yet belong to them, rarely pausing to consider: are these things truly what life needs? There is a saying: "Desire is a pit that can never be filled." A person consumed by desire for wealth, even with a million in assets, will continue to fixate on ten million, a hundred million. If we forever push our targets forward, how can we ever know contentment? So even with great abundance, it is difficult to feel happy.
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*[Comparison]*
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Living in society, we inevitably relate to others. And so people constantly compare themselves with one another. You have a million, I must have ten million to be richer than you. You drive a modest car, I must drive a luxury car to outshine you. You dine at a thousand-yuan table, I must dine at a ten-thousand-yuan banquet to surpass you. You wear the latest fashion, I must wear international name brands to be more stylish. Your computer is a 386, I must buy a 486 to be more advanced. You are a manager, I must become the chairman to outrank you...
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Those who live with a comparing mindset are always hoping to outdo others and feel happiness through the envy in others' eyes. But society changes with each passing day. Even if we run without rest, we can hardly stay ahead of every trend. Take computers: in earlier years, a 286 was cutting-edge and rarely seen. Yet in just a few short years, the 386 and 486 became obsolete, as the 586 made its dazzling debut. But even if we upgrade to the latest model, so what? Before long, it too will lag behind the times. Twenty years ago, a family with a bicycle could be happy for a long time. Once bicycles became common, people needed motorcycles to feel happy. Once motorcycles became common, people needed private cars to feel happy.
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Society endlessly churns out the new to replace the old. People caught in comparison, though always pursuing happiness and striving to reach some goal, rarely know contentment. Even when temporarily ahead and temporarily satisfied, they are soon driven by new comparisons to rush on without rest.
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*[Competition]*
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A life lived through comparison inevitably leads to competition. In families, siblings compete for their parents' favor. In schools, classmates compete for grades. In the marketplace, businesses compete for market share. In academia, scholars compete for academic standing and the impact of their work. Between nations, competition arises over territory and resources. Must human society, like the natural world, follow the rule of "natural selection, survival of the fittest"? Must mutual struggle, even life-and-death combat, be the way people relate to one another? In this competition, how many people live in utter exhaustion, how many stagger under unbearable burdens?
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Desire drives people to ceaselessly reach outward, losing themselves in endless pursuit. A story recorded in the Buddhist scriptures tells of this: one day, after sitting in meditation, the Buddha was walking in the forest when a group of youths hurried by and asked him whether he had seen several young women pass this way. The Buddha asked them what had happened. The youths said that the night before, they had been reveling with these women, but when they woke in the morning, the women had fled, making off with all their money. The Buddha countered: so, which is more important---searching for those women and your money, or searching for yourselves?
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In truth, most modern people are like the youths in this story: forever chasing outward, seldom attending to themselves, let alone recognizing the importance of knowing oneself. Today, nearly the whole of society is frantically pursuing money---as the saying goes, "nine out of ten people are in business." In China today, books with economic themes sell exceptionally well, and enrollment in economics-related programs is bursting at the seams. If even education and culture have come to this, what of everything else? In society, ways to make money sprout in endless variety. How many people rack their brains and stop at nothing to get rich?
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As the economy develops, countless consumption opportunities are created to constantly stoke people's desires. What stands out most is the proliferation of entertainment venues in recent years: dance halls, bars, nightclubs, and the like. During the day, people rush to make money; at night, they indulge in pleasure. In this nonstop bustle, they lose their direction entirely. Even more worrying is that while the economy prospers, social morality continues to decline.
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Excessive pursuit of desire inevitably leads to painful results. As the *Abhidharmakosha*, chapter "Analysis of the Elements," states: "Those who run after desires always give rise to hope. When what they desire goes unfulfilled, the torment strikes like an arrow." This verse tells us: those sunk in desire are always chasing outward. When their pursuits fail, they sink into frustration and despair, as painfully as if pierced by a sharp arrow. In Buddhism, the suffering caused by unfulfilled desire is called the suffering of not getting what one wants. Together with birth, aging, sickness, death, separation from loved ones, meeting with those we hate, and the raging of the five aggregates, these form the "eight sufferings," a concise summary of all suffering in human life.
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The *Madhyama Agama*, in the *Suffering Aggregate Sutra*, also elucidates the faults of desire. The sutra states: "What is the fault of desire? A son of a good family, relying on his skills to make a living, may engage in farming, or trade, or study, or master arithmetic, or learn crafts, or skillfully carve seals, or compose writings, or manufacture writing brushes, or understand the scriptures, or serve as a brave general, or attend upon the king. He suffers cold when it is cold, heat when it is hot, and endures hunger, thirst, fatigue, and stings from mosquitoes and gadflies, undertaking such work in pursuit of wealth. If, despite such effort, such conduct, such pursuit, he fails to obtain wealth, he gives rise to sorrow, distress, grief, and vexation... If he does obtain wealth, he becomes attached to it, guards and hides it... If it is taken by the king, stolen by thieves, destroyed by fire, rotted away, or lost, he gives rise to sorrow, distress, grief, and vexation." This illustrates the suffering caused by both the pursuit and the loss of wealth.
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The same sutra continues: "Because sentient beings take desire as their basis and follow desire, mother quarrels with son, son quarrels with mother, and father and son, brothers, sisters, relatives all quarrel with one another in turn. After they have thus quarreled and fought, the mother speaks ill of the son, the son speaks ill of the mother, and father and son, brothers, sisters, and relatives speak ill of one another---how much more so with others?" These disputes caused by the scramble for wealth have never ceased from ancient times to the present. Such conflicts occur not only in society at large but even within families that share daily life, among relatives bound by blood. Disputes over property lead to estrangement between husband and wife, enmity between father and son, broken fraternal bonds, or scattered clans. At root, this too is caused by the desire to possess.
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The sutra goes on: "Because sentient beings take desire as their basis and follow desire, king contends with king, brahmin contends with brahmin, householder contends with householder, commoner contends with commoner, and nation contends with nation. Having thus contended against one another and come to harbor mutual hatred, they harm one another with various kinds of weapons---striking with fists, throwing stones, or beating with staves and slashing with swords. In such conflict, some die, some live in terror, and they experience extreme suffering." In this defiled world of the five corruptions, people fight one another out of desire, endlessly. Merchant fights merchant, politician fights politician, nation fights nation. In times past, German fascists swept across Europe, and Japanese invaders ravaged Asia, inflicting boundless suffering through world war. The instigating force behind this catastrophe was also the expansionist drive born of desire. In ancient times, when weapons were primitive, war caused only localized devastation. But today, with highly advanced technology, if certain major powers cannot restrain their expansionist desires, humanity will face the threat of catastrophic destruction---the consequences are too dreadful to contemplate.
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If we wish to resolve the suffering caused by cognitive confusion and attachment to desire, we must rely on the power of prajna wisdom.
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The title of this sutra is the *Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra*. *Paramita* is translated into Chinese as "crossing over"---that is, to transcend the torrent of afflictions and birth and death, and to reach the other shore. But the "other shore" spoken of here is neither the Eastern Pure Lapis Lazuli World nor the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss. It is none other than this very human world where we live. If we are deluded by ignorance, we stand on this shore of affliction and suffering, this shore of anxiety and anguish, this shore of emptiness and unease. But once we activate prajna wisdom, seeing correctly the true nature of all phenomena, practicing accordingly and acting in accord with principle, we will arrive at the other shore of peace and serenity, the other shore of liberation and freedom. And prajna is precisely the vessel that ferries us from this shore to the other.
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{#三解脱痛苦的原理}
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## Three. The Principle of Liberation from Suffering
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> When Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara was practicing the profound Prajna Paramita, he illuminated the five aggregates and saw they are all empty, and he crossed beyond all suffering and difficulty.
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The gist of this passage is: when Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara entered the profound contemplation of Prajna Paramita, he illuminated the five aggregates and all phenomena and saw that they are empty, without intrinsic nature, and thereby transcended all suffering and adversity. In his *Lectures on the Prajna Sutras*, Venerable Yinshun called this passage the "statement of purpose"---it announces the central theme of the entire sutra. Clearly, understanding this passage holds the key to studying this scripture.
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The fundamental purpose of the Buddha's appearance in the world was precisely to help sentient beings liberate themselves from suffering and transcend birth and death. When we study Buddhism and practice, it is likewise simply to part from suffering and attain happiness. Yet when we speak of parting from suffering and attaining happiness, some always object, saying that life ought to have both suffering and happiness to be rich and colorful, or that suffering and happiness are relative---without suffering, there can be no happiness. Such arguments may sound plausible at first hearing, but upon closer examination they do not hold water. If life truly ought to have suffering as well as happiness, then we should welcome suffering with the same joy and enthusiasm with which we welcome happiness. In reality, when suffering arrives, we instinctively flee from it.
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It is precisely for this reason that all human behavior, from beginning to end, seeks to escape suffering and pursue happiness through every possible means. Few people deliberately seek out suffering. Even when they do, it is not suffering itself they seek; rather, they use it as a means to an end, attempting to pursue a different kind of happiness. Take self-harm, for example: on closer inspection, it is usually because the suffering in the mind has become so unbearably heavy that a person harms the body to divert it. From this perspective, self-harm is actually an attempt to relieve mental suffering, not a deliberate creation of it. As for the view that life should have both suffering and happiness to be rich and colorful, this is merely the talk of "idealists," the kind of imagination that "feigns sorrow just to compose a new poem." Once suffering becomes real, people will flee from it as fast as possible, doing everything they can to escape suffering and chase pleasure. From this we can see that liberation from suffering is not only a problem solved by the Buddhadharma; it is also a problem that worldly methods must address.
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{#认识苦才能解除苦}
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### 1. You Must Know Suffering to End It
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So how can we liberate ourselves from the suffering of human existence? The Buddhadharma holds that first we must have a comprehensive understanding of suffering. Only by understanding suffering can we prescribe the right remedy. Speaking of suffering, it can broadly be divided into physical suffering and mental suffering. Physical suffering refers to the suffering of the physical body; generally, people experience it in much the same way. For example, in the bitter cold of winter or the scorching heat of summer, people are tormented by cold and heat. When we are ill or burned by fire or cut by a blade, we all feel unbearable pain. Mental suffering, on the other hand, arises from inner afflictions, and its manifestations vary widely from person to person. For instance, looking at the same bright moon, one person may feel cool tranquility, while another sinks into melancholy. Visiting the same scenic spot, one person may feel relaxed and joyful, while another is overcome by sadness.
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Furthermore, the Buddhadharma classifies suffering into three types: the suffering of suffering, the suffering of change, and the suffering of conditioned existence.
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*[The Suffering of Suffering]*
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The suffering of suffering is pain that we actually experience. Even if the Buddha had never pointed it out, we would recognize it as suffering. Examples include the suffering of birth, the suffering of aging, the suffering of illness, and the suffering of death. In addition, there is suffering caused by the interaction of internal and external conditions: separation from loved ones is the suffering of being parted from those we love; failure to obtain what we seek is the suffering of not getting what we want; being forced into the company of enemies is the suffering of meeting those we hate; and the inability of body and mind to find balance is the suffering of the raging five aggregates.
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*[The Suffering of Change]*
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In contrast to the suffering of suffering, the suffering of change refers to what we take to be pleasant experiences. Some may wonder: if they are pleasant experiences, why are they classified as suffering? From the perspective of Buddhist wisdom, all worldly happiness is fundamentally suffering in essence. When we are hungry, eating our fill feels good---but if we kept eating without stopping, would it still feel good? When our body is dirty, bathing feels good---but if we soaked endlessly in water, would it still feel good? When we are feeling low, watching television feels good---but if we watched nonstop day and night, would it still feel good? From this we can see that what we call happiness is merely the temporary relief of suffering and the temporary restoration of psychological balance after a certain desire has been satisfied. If eating and bathing were intrinsically pleasurable, then no matter how much we ate or how long we bathed, it should always be pleasant---indeed, it should get more and more pleasant. The facts tell us otherwise: as soon as the activity exceeds what the body needs, the pleasure immediately turns to suffering. This is true of eating, of bathing, and of every happiness that arises from the satisfaction of desire.
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It is precisely because such pleasant feelings can turn bad that the Buddhadharma calls them the "suffering of change." At the same time, pleasant feelings, like painful feelings, mental distress, and mental joy, are impermanent and ever-changing. We cling to pleasant and joyful feelings, but these feelings cannot be possessed permanently. Pleasant feelings are accompanied by painful ones; joyful feelings are accompanied by distress. They are in constant flux. In the practice of the four dhyanas and eight concentrations, the first, second, and third dhyanas all still retain feelings of joy and pleasure and thus cannot escape the calamities of fire, water, and wind (fire burns the first dhyana, water floods the second, wind blows through the third). Only upon reaching the fourth dhyana, where equanimity and mindfulness are purified and one is free from both joy and pleasure---can one be truly safe and undisturbed.
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*[The Suffering of Conditioned Existence]*
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The suffering of conditioned existence is the suffering brought about by continual flux and change. Everything in the world is impermanent and ever-changing---this is a law of nature. But worldly people, ignorant of this truth, single-mindedly pursue permanence: they hope for a body that lasts forever, love that lasts forever, a family that lasts forever, a career that lasts forever, relationships that last forever. Yet they never stop to consider: which of these can truly remain forever unchanged? If we simply observe, we will discover that even the most beautiful things cannot endure forever, and even the healthiest body cannot remain forever indestructible. These are natural laws. But because our desires run counter to the fact of impermanence, the "suffering of conditioned existence" arises.
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Understanding suffering is not about passively accepting it; it is about actively liberating ourselves from it. So what is the path away from suffering? Worldly people usually see improving external conditions as the solution. They believe that if the economy prospers and material conditions improve, humanity will thereby attain happiness. In fact, in an age where material conditions far surpass those of antiquity, social problems and the suffering people face have not lessened compared to any previous era---they may even have increased. Why is this? Because they have failed to grasp the crux of the problem. The root of human suffering lies in the mind. Trying to eliminate suffering by improving external conditions is like trying to stop a pot from boiling by skimming the surface---it can never solve the problem at its root.
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{#寻找痛苦之源}
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### 2. Searching for the Source of Suffering
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If we wish to liberate ourselves from suffering, we must first understand the current state of suffering among sentient beings and then trace it back to its source. Although the many kinds of human suffering are certainly related to the external environment, when we trace them to their root, the problem lies within life itself. From the perspective of the Buddhadharma, all suffering comes from confusion about and attachment to "existence" (bhava). If we want to eliminate suffering, we must develop a correct understanding of existence.
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The *Heart Sutra* states: "When Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara was practicing the profound Prajna Paramita, he illuminated the five aggregates and saw they are all empty." This tells us that we must use prajna wisdom to contemplate the five aggregates. *Aggregate* means a collection or accumulation. The five aggregates are the form aggregate, the feeling aggregate, the perception aggregate, the volitional formations aggregate, and the consciousness aggregate.
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Form: the totality of all material phenomena, including past form, present form, future form, coarse form, subtle form, and so on, collectively referred to as form. We usually recognize material phenomena through their shape (configurational form) and color (chromatic form). Hence, the Buddhadharma uses "form" to refer to matter.
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Feeling: the function of receiving and experiencing. It is the emotion that arises when we face favorable or unfavorable conditions, including pain, pleasure, distress, joy, and equanimity.
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Perception: the function of apprehending characteristics. When we encounter external objects, we inevitably capture their images and assign names and concepts to them.
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Volitional formations: the function of constructing and acting. It is the process of making judgments about things and putting them into action.
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Consciousness: the function of discrimination. It is the synthesizing awareness within the sphere of mental activity.
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Among the five aggregates, the form aggregate belongs to material phenomena, while the four aggregates of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness belong to mental phenomena.
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The five aggregates are the Buddha's summary of all arising-and-ceasing phenomena in the world. Worldly people cannot correctly understand everything that "exists." They cling to a substantial self within the sentient being's life-form, and they cling to substantial phenomena within the realm of the six sense objects. Moreover, they give rise to all manner of inverted discriminations and attachments concerning self and phenomena, which create the afflictions and suffering of human existence.
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The *Heart Sutra*'s phrase "illuminated the five aggregates and saw they are all empty" is precisely meant to overturn worldly people's mistaken understanding of "existence." We cling to "existence" as substantial, and so this "existence" becomes a substantial existence. However, all arising-and-ceasing phenomena in the world are not truly existent; their essence is empty, without intrinsic nature. The "emptiness" spoken of here does not mean nothing at all. Rather, it tells us that the "existence" of the five aggregates is not the substantial reality we cling to. What we call "existence" is merely provisional existence. Its counterpart, "emptiness," is then a thorough seeing-through of "existence," something that helps us break free from our mistaken attachment to "existence."
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If we can illuminate the five aggregates and see they are empty, the afflictions and suffering that arise from them will likewise cease to exist---and we will thereby cross beyond all suffering and difficulty.
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{#四有空不二}
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## Four. The Non-duality of Existence and Emptiness
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> Shariputra, form is not different from emptiness; emptiness is not different from form. Form itself is emptiness; emptiness itself is form. Feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness are also like this.
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Existence and emptiness are important concepts in philosophy and also a central topic in Buddhist discourse. In the *Heart Sutra*, the five aggregates of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness represent existing things. Their counterpart is emptiness. In ordinary experience, people always assume that existence and emptiness are diametrically opposed---they think that existence is not emptiness and emptiness is not existence. Or they may say that existence lies outside emptiness and emptiness lies outside existence. This sutra, however, sets forth the dialectical relationship between existence and emptiness, explaining the profound principle of their non-duality.
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To understand the non-duality of existence and emptiness, we must first clarify what existence means. In ordinary thinking, existence is often associated with "substantial reality." When we speak of existence, we tend to feel it means something that exists in and of itself, something substantial. Humanity's sense of the substantial reality of things is deeply ingrained, universal, and shared. The ancients did not know that dreams are unreal; when they had a nightmare, they were terrified, believing that disaster was imminent and had to be averted through prayers and such. Infants do not know that reflections in a mirror are illusory; upon seeing an image in the mirror, they will often grab at it and laugh. Our understanding may be more advanced than that of the ancients or of infants, and we may know that dreams are unreal, yet we still believe that everything in the external world is solidly substantial.
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Scientists have a somewhat deeper understanding of things, but when they analyze material phenomena, they tend to cling to the idea that the elements that constitute matter are substantial---as seen in atomic theory, neutron theory, and the like. Philosophers seem to have gone a step further; they can see through the illusoriness of phenomena, yet they cling to the notion of an eternal, unchanging substance behind the phenomena, such as Thales's "water," Parmenides's "Being," or Plato's "Ideas." From primitive people to modern people, and even to scientists and philosophers, although there are different depths of understanding, the sense of substantial reality that they attribute to existence is the same.
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The sense of substantial reality that human beings impute to existence is precisely an expression of the "view of intrinsic nature" (*svabhava-drishti*). The term "intrinsic nature," sometimes translated as self-essence, carries the meaning of something substantial and eternal. Proceeding from the view of intrinsic nature, we inevitably impute a sense of substantial reality to everything that "exists." However, if we observe with the wisdom of Prajna and the Middle Way, what is called "existence" is merely conditioned existence. All phenomena that "exist" in the world are without exception produced by a confluence of conditions. That is to say, the existence of any conditioned phenomenon is formed by the combination of numerous conditions; it is those conditions that determine its existence.
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Conditioned arising and intrinsic nature are irreconcilable. It is only because worldly people are ignorant and do not understand that "existence" is the coming together of multiple conditions that the view of intrinsic nature and the sense of substantial reality arise. If we recognize the conditioned nature of "existence," we will surely understand that its essence is without intrinsic nature. By "intrinsic nature" is meant the idea that existing phenomena exist on their own, are formed on their own, and are defined on their own. Conditioned arising, by contrast, sees everything that "exists" as existing through conditions, formed through conditions, and defined through conditions. Therefore, conditioned "existence" is not something that has always been so, much less something eternal or substantially existent. To impute a sense of substantial reality to "existence" is entirely mistaken.
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{#经典所说的有}
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### 1. "Existence" as Taught in the Scriptures
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*The Mahaprajnaparamita Upadesha*
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The *Mahaprajnaparamita Upadesha* (*Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom*) classifies "existence" into three kinds: first, existence by mutual dependence; second, existence by conventional designation; third, existence as phenomena.
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Existence by mutual dependence: this means existing in relation to something else---it cannot be explained apart from that which it depends on. For example, we think this vase is large, but that is only in relation to a smaller vase. Similarly, tall exists only in relation to short, long in relation to short, beautiful in relation to ugly, good in relation to evil, generosity in relation to stinginess. Apart from largeness, what is smallness? Apart from beauty, what is ugliness? Because large and small, high and low, long and short, beautiful and ugly, good and evil are all dependently posited, this is called existence by mutual dependence.
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Existence by conventional designation: the existence of things is nothing more than a conventional designation, with names assigned according to various causes and conditions. For example, take the utensil before us that people call a "table." But this table does not exist inherently; it is merely a combination of a pile of materials such as wood. Apart from these materials, what is a table? This utensil made of wood was called a "table" by the ancients, and so it became a table. Had it been called a "chair" from the outset, it would be a chair. What we call a table or a chair is simply a conventional designation established by people and used ever since; it has no substantial reality. A "person" is likewise a conventional designation. If the ancients had called sentient beings of our kind "pigs" and called pigs "people," then now, if someone failed to address you as a pig, you would probably be angry: you look down on me and refuse to treat me as a pig---how outrageous! Thus we see that tables or chairs, people or pigs, and indeed everything in the world, are merely conventionally designated; they exist only as conventional designations.
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Existence as phenomena: although the names of all things in the world are established through conventional designation, there are, apart from mere names, phenomena formed by various causes and conditions. Take a table: though it is only a combination of a pile of materials and conditions, this phenomenon does exist and has corresponding practical functions. Therefore, while these conditioned phenomena are utterly without intrinsic nature, their apparent forms are vividly present. This kind of existence---the existence of conditioned phenomena---is called existence as phenomena.
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*The Diamond Sutra*
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In the *Diamond Sutra*, the Buddha also gives a concise and penetrating summary of the true nature of existence, in what is the most celebrated verse in the entire sutra: "All conditioned phenomena / Are like a dream, an illusion, a bubble, a shadow / Like dew and like a flash of lightning / Thus should we contemplate them."
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"Conditioned" refers to all phenomena that arise and cease, that are fabricated. "Like a dream" means as illusory as a dream. Everyone knows that dreams are unreal, yet the dreamer clings to them as real and only recognizes the truth after waking. All phenomena are like dreams---false and insubstantial---yet sentient beings, due to ignorance, cling to them as real. Only after seeing the Path, when they wake from the great dream, do they realize the true nature of all phenomena. "Like an illusion" refers to the various things conjured up by a magician through magical arts---horses, carriages, houses, people, and so on. Though there are no objective, material objects, they vividly appear before the eyes, visible to sight and audible to hearing. The existence of things is just like this: although empty and without intrinsic nature, their apparent forms are vividly present. "Like a bubble" refers to the bubbles that appear when water contains air---showy but insubstantial, vanishing in an instant. This describes the continual flux and change of all phenomena, their momentary arising and ceasing. "Like a shadow" refers to the shadow cast by an object in sunlight. The shadow appears because of light; when the light disappears, the shadow disappears with it. This describes how all phenomena manifest only when conditions converge and vanish when the conditions disperse. "Like dew and like a flash of lightning" similarly illustrate the brevity of phenomenal existence. "Thus should we contemplate them" reminds us to view everything that "exists" with this understanding.
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*The Vimalakirti Sutra*
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In the *Vimalakirti Sutra*, which belongs to the same Prajna system as the *Heart Sutra* and *Diamond Sutra*, the great layman Vimalakirti, feigning illness, expounds the truth of "existence" to the assembly: "This body is like a cluster of foam, ungraspable; this body is like a bubble, unable to endure; this body is like a mirage, born of thirst and desire; this body is like a plantain tree, hollow within; this body is like an illusion, arising from perverted views; this body is like a dream, seen through false perception; this body is like a shadow, manifesting through karmic conditions; this body is like an echo, dependent on causes and conditions; this body is like a drifting cloud, shifting and vanishing in an instant; this body is like lightning, not lasting even a single thought-moment." Using the arising and ceasing, the change and transformation of the physical body, this passage illustrates the impermanence of all conditioned phenomena, thereby revealing the illusory nature of existence.
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{#经典所说的空}
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### 2. "Emptiness" as Taught in the Scriptures
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Having clarified existence, let us now explain emptiness. We ordinarily think that existence means being present and emptiness means being absent. In this view, existence and emptiness are mutually opposed. If something exists, it surely cannot be empty; if it is empty, it surely cannot exist. But when observed with the wisdom of Prajna and the Middle Way, emptiness and existence are one, not a dualistic opposition. What is called emptiness does not have to be outside of existence, nor does a thing have to be destroyed before it can be called empty. The "existence" spoken of in the Buddhadharma is conditioned existence: at the very moment something exists, its intrinsic nature is empty. What is distinctive about the Buddhadharma is that it clarifies emptiness through existence---existence and emptiness are one.
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*The Mahaprajnaparamita Upadesha*
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The *Mahaprajnaparamita Upadesha* presents three methods for understanding emptiness: first, emptiness through analytical deconstruction; second, emptiness through contemplation; third, emptiness of intrinsic nature.
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Emptiness through analytical deconstruction: also called the analytical contemplation of emptiness. Through analyzing "existence," one moves from coarse to fine, from fine to subtle. The Sarvastivada scholars of Buddhism used this method to analyze the physical body of the five aggregates, discovering that the so-called "self" within the physical body is utterly ungraspable, and thereby proposed "the emptiness of self." But in observing material and mental phenomena, they analyzed all the way down to the supposedly indivisible components of matter or mind and proposed the "theory of ultimate particles," regarding such ultimate particles as substantially existent, thus forming the view of "the emptiness of self but the existence of phenomena." The significance of emptiness through analytical deconstruction lies in breaking attachment to a personal self. As for material phenomena, however, if we subject them to analysis, even ultimate particles cannot be established. The *Treatise in Twenty Verses on Consciousness-Only* refutes the theory of ultimate particles: as long as something has spatial extension, it occupies the six directions of east, west, south, north, up, and down, and can therefore still be analyzed. From this, it concludes that the theory of ultimate particles cannot stand.
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Emptiness through contemplation: this is understanding emptiness at the level of meditative visualization. When a yogi practices calm abiding and insight meditation, various images can manifest in accordance with their contemplation. When one has mastered the practice of fire contemplation, everything one sees becomes blazing flames; when one has mastered the practice of water contemplation, everything one sees becomes vast waters. In everyday life, the story of "mistaking the reflection of a bow in a cup for a snake" illustrates the same principle. A certain gentleman mistook the reflection of a bow in his cup for a snake, believed he had swallowed a snake, and fell gravely ill as a result. When he later learned the truth, he recovered instantly. The fire and water in contemplation, and the snake reflection in the story, do not actually exist, yet within the contemplation and perception, they appear as vividly as reality. It is precisely from these images that manifest through contemplation that practitioners of the Consciousness-Only school realize the principle that external objects have no substantial reality and manifest only in accordance with the mind---that is, "all phenomena are consciousness-only." However, although they can break attachment to the substantial reality of external objects, they fall into the view that mind exists while objects are empty. So this understanding of emptiness is still not ultimate.
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Emptiness of intrinsic nature: because non-Buddhist paths do not understand the conditioned nature of all phenomena, when they encounter things, the view of intrinsic nature inevitably arises, leading them to believe that things exist on their own, are formed on their own, and have always been so. The Sarvastivada of the Hinayana, though aware of the principle of conditioned arising, simultaneously holds that phenomena inherently possess intrinsic nature. But from the perspective of Prajna and the Middle Way, intrinsic nature and conditioned arising cannot coexist. The *Mulamadhyamakakarika*, chapter "Examination of Existence and Non-existence," states: "If intrinsic nature existed among the multiple conditions, that would be impossible. An intrinsic nature produced from multiple conditions would be a fabricated thing... If intrinsic nature were something fabricated, how could this make sense? Intrinsic nature is called unfabricated---it does not depend on other phenomena to be established." Conditioned arising is fabricated, produced by the workings of multiple conditions. Intrinsic nature is unfabricated: it exists on its own, is formed on its own, and can be established without depending on multiple conditions. Thus, Madhyamaka scholars hold that whatever is dependently arisen necessarily lacks intrinsic nature. This is emptiness of intrinsic nature.
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*The Heart Sutra and Others*
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The *Heart Sutra*'s statement "form is not different from emptiness; emptiness is not different from form. Form itself is emptiness; emptiness itself is form" also uses the conditioned arising of form to explain emptiness of intrinsic nature. Form does not possess the intrinsic nature that worldly people cling to; it is form produced by causes and conditions. Emptiness is also not the nothingness of a barren void that worldly people imagine, nor the annihilationist view that a person is like a lamp extinguished at death. It is the emptiness of intrinsic nature that does not obstruct conditioned arising. The *Mulamadhyamakakarika*, chapter "Examination of the Four Noble Truths," states: "There is never any phenomenon that does not arise from causes and conditions. Therefore, there is no phenomenon that is not empty." The *Treatise on the Twelve Gates*, chapter "Examination of Causes and Conditions," also says: "Phenomena produced by multiple conditions are without intrinsic nature." Form is dependently arisen; its essence is without intrinsic nature, empty. Hence, the *Heart Sutra* sums this up as: form is not different from emptiness; form itself is emptiness.
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Some find "form itself is emptiness" understandable enough but feel that "emptiness itself is form" does not seem to make sense. This is because they still interpret emptiness as a barren void. The emptiness spoken of in the Middle Way is emptiness of intrinsic nature, which does not negate the apparent forms of conditioned existence.
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The *Mulamadhyamakakarika*, chapter "Examination of the Four Noble Truths," says: "Whatever is dependently arisen---I declare that to be emptiness. That is also a conventional designation. This itself is the Middle Way." To say that conditioned phenomena are empty of intrinsic nature does not destroy the apparent forms of conditioned existence. Hence, conditioned existence is apparent while intrinsic nature is empty; intrinsic nature is empty while things appear vividly present. Therefore, form is not different from emptiness; naturally, emptiness is not different from form. Form itself is emptiness; naturally, emptiness itself is form. The two notions of existence and emptiness, wholly opposed in the minds of worldly people, are thus unified through the illumination of the wisdom of Prajna and the Middle Way.
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The teaching of the non-duality of emptiness and existence aims to dispel the views of existence and the views of emptiness. Because worldly people do not understand existence, they give rise to mistaken notions about everything that exists and then cling to them, leading to all manner of afflictions in life. "Form itself is emptiness" is precisely meant to help us see through to the essence of existence---to see through to its illusory, impermanent, and empty nature, devoid of intrinsic nature. If we can possess this understanding, will we still be troubled by existence and the problems it brings? Will we still be burdened by things?
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Then there are those who, having seen through the illusory substance of existence, fail to understand conditioned causation. They reason that since everything is illusory and will ultimately return to destruction, what value is there in living, what meaning is worth pursuing? This leads either to nihilistic attitudes, or to extreme anguish for lack of purpose---even to the point of ending one's life---or to unrestrained indulgence, doing whatever one pleases, running to the opposite extreme. The *Heart Sutra*'s statement "emptiness itself is form" is precisely meant to counteract this wrong view. Although all phenomena are empty of intrinsic nature, conditioned causation operates without the slightest error. Because every good or bad action brings corresponding results, we must be careful in word and deed, refraining from evil and cultivating the good.
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{#五诸法真实相}
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## Five. The True Nature of All Phenomena
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> Shariputra, all phenomena are marked by emptiness: they neither arise nor cease, are neither defiled nor pure, and neither increase nor decrease.
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{#空-相}
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### 1. The Mark of Emptiness
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"All phenomena are marked by emptiness." "All phenomena" refers to all dharmas without exception. The "mark of emptiness" is neither emptiness nor existence; it is the true nature revealed by emptiness. From another angle, the mark of emptiness could also be called the mark of existence, that is, the true nature revealed by existence. True nature can be revealed through emptiness or through existence, but it is itself neither emptiness nor existence.
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{#不生不灭}
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### 2. Neither Arising Nor Ceasing
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"Neither arising nor ceasing" is spoken in reference to the arising and ceasing, and existence and non-existence, of things. To grasp the profound meaning of "neither arising nor ceasing," we must first explain what arising and ceasing mean. Arising and ceasing are the characteristics of conditioned phenomena. The seal of "all conditioned things are impermanent" among the Three Dharma Seals describes precisely the ceaseless change of all conditioned phenomena. Regarding the changes of material phenomena, the scriptures and treatises present the doctrine of four phases: "arising, abiding, changing, and ceasing." Coming into being from non-being is called arising; continuing after arising is called abiding; metabolic transformation is called changing; disintegration and decay are called ceasing. There is also the doctrine of three phases: "arising, changing, and ceasing," which merges the abiding and changing phases into the single phase of changing. This is because during the abiding phase, the process of changing is already underway; the two are simultaneous, so the abiding phase can be subsumed under changing. Whether in the four-phase or three-phase scheme, all can be reduced to the two phases of arising and ceasing.
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Arising and ceasing are further classified in the scriptures and treatises into three types: first, arising and ceasing over a single lifetime; second, moment-to-moment arising and ceasing; third, arising and ceasing over a great eon.
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Arising and ceasing over a single lifetime: the process of a sentient being's life from birth to death, that is, the span of our single lifetime. No one can escape birth and death. Before we complete this lifetime ourselves, we have usually witnessed or heard of the deaths of relatives, neighbors, and friends, and encountered related material in daily life, news reports, or films and literature. Therefore, arising and ceasing over a single lifetime is not unfamiliar to us.
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Moment-to-moment arising and ceasing: the arising and ceasing that occurs in things over the briefest intervals of time. This is more subtle. *Kshana* is a Sanskrit word meaning an extremely short period of time. Indians regarded it as the smallest unit of time: a single snap of the fingers contains sixty kshanas. For most people, moment-to-moment arising and ceasing is imperceptible. Nonetheless, things are arising and ceasing moment by moment, tending toward decay. Take the table before us: from brand-new to worn-out, the process proceeds imperceptibly. If the table were not in the process of decay even for a single moment, then it should not be in decay the moment before or the moment after. And if it were not in decay during any moment, it would never decay. Confucius said, "Between the crossing of two arms, it is already not the same"---meaning that in the brief instant of our arms crossing, this hand is no longer the hand it was a moment ago. The Western philosopher Heraclitus said, "You cannot step twice into the same river," conveying the same meaning.
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Arising and ceasing over a great eon: this is spoken from the perspective of the entire life continuum. Life is like a mighty torrent, flowing from the infinite past and continuing into the boundless future, without beginning or end. In this vast and long torrent of life, the present life is but one of its splashes. Though the splashes rise and fall, the torrent of life continues without interruption. This ceaselessly continuing torrent of life is what is meant by arising and ceasing over a great eon.
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People ordinarily regard arising and ceasing as solidly real. When they speak of arising, they think of self-arising---that is, something producing and defining itself. Or they regard everything in the world as arising without a cause---that is, as a totally baseless, random event. Why did human beings appear in the world? By chance. Why did I become my mother's child? Also by chance. Whether self-arising or uncaused arising, both treat life as a substantial, independent entity. If arising means something actual and substantial coming into being, then it is different from non-arising. Thus, arising and non-arising become two opposing poles. Arising is not non-arising; non-arising is not arising. This, again, is the result of the view of intrinsic nature.
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From the perspective of the Buddhadharma, there is nothing in the world that arises from itself or without a cause. The law of arising and ceasing is: "All phenomena arise from causes and conditions; all phenomena cease due to causes and conditions." What we call arising is arising through the convergence of conditions. Take a table: it is only because many conditions come together---wood, paint, nails, a carpenter, and so on---that a table comes into being. Take this lecture series: it is only because the Mingyue Buddhist Society resolved to host it, because many devoted practitioners came to attend, because the Dharma teachers accepted the invitation to lecture, and because a venue was provided---only when all these conditions were present did this "winter retreat" come to be. Its emergence depends on numerous causes and conditions; it is what we call arising through the convergence of conditions. It is neither self-arising nor uncaused arising.
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That is how arising works. What about ceasing? Ceasing, in fact, also occurs through the dispersion of conditions. Take the table mentioned earlier: once the paint fades, the nails loosen, and the wood rots---as the various conditions that constitute the table deteriorate, this utensil called a table will also disappear. The same is true of this lecture series: after the seven-day program ends, all of you here and the Dharma teachers will go your separate ways, and the winter retreat will cease to exist. This ceasing does not mean that everything becomes nothing. Although you are no longer here, you are elsewhere; it is simply that the various conditions that made up this winter retreat have dispersed. From this we can see that the Buddhadharma speaks of ceasing in terms of the dispersion of conditions.
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When we understand the principle of the convergence and dispersion of conditions, we will discover that what we call arising and ceasing is in fact neither arising nor ceasing. Looking at arising through the convergence of conditions: apart from conditions, nothing can arise. Looking at ceasing through the dispersion of conditions: apart from conditions, nothing can cease. Take a table: apart from the many conditions of nails, wood, paint, carpenter, and so forth, where is there a table? Thus, the arising of a table is in fact non-arising, because it is merely the coming together of conditions; it is not a self-existent, independently existing thing. The ceasing of a table is likewise due to the dispersion of conditions; it is not total annihilation into nothingness. Clearly, the ceasing of a table is in fact non-ceasing, because apart from the conditions that make up the table, we cannot speak of its ceasing. This is true of a table, of our winter retreat, and indeed of all conditioned phenomena throughout the world.
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In connection with arising and ceasing, we should also briefly address the related concepts of existence and non-existence. We often think that existence is solid existence and non-existence is solid non-existence. Hence, what exists cannot be non-existent, and what is non-existent cannot exist, and so we fall into the view of existence and the view of non-existence. The Buddhadharma speaks of existence and non-existence in terms of arising and ceasing. It holds that the reason all phenomena either exist or do not exist is simply the convergence and dispersion of causes and conditions; presence and absence are nothing more than the phenomena of things arising and ceasing through conditions. Viewing existence and non-existence through the lens of arising and ceasing, we realize that both the possession that comes with arising and the disappearance that comes with ceasing are merely apparent forms. Existence is not absolute, eternal existence; non-existence is not real, final non-existence. Hence, we need not be elated by what we have, nor need we be dejected by what we lack.
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{#不垢不净}
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### 3. Neither Defiled Nor Pure
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"Neither defiled nor pure" is spoken in reference to the nature of things. Its counterpart concepts---defilement and purity---are a pair of notions established according to the likes and dislikes of sentient beings. Ordinarily, we regard what we like as pure and what we dislike as defiled. On the basis of this presupposition of defilement and purity, in each person's world, we go on to discriminate good from bad, beautiful from ugly, valuable from worthless, meaningful from meaningless, and so on. And we believe that these distinctions are objectively existent, fixed, and unchanging.
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In fact, defilement and purity are not objective, real existents; they are artificially imputed and vary from person to person. Take clothing: some find simplicity beautiful, others find opulence beautiful; some find bright colors beautiful, others find plain elegance beautiful; some find solemnity beautiful, others find eccentricity beautiful---an endless variety. Take food: some love spicy food, others prefer sweet; some like strong flavors, others favor lightness; some cannot enjoy a meal without meat, others maintain a lifelong vegetarian diet---so the saying goes, "tastes differ." Take living environments: some enjoy living downtown, others prefer retreating to the countryside; some value functionality, others emphasize ambiance; some are infatuated with luxury, others appreciate simplicity---each to their own. The *Mahaprajnaparamita Upadesha* records the following example: towards a certain woman, a lover gives rise to desire, an enemy gives rise to hatred, her children give rise to respect, and birds and beasts flee at the sight of her. Why do their views of her differ so vastly? This tells us that defilement and purity are not fixed; they are standards formed according to each person's needs, and these standards are themselves in constant flux.
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As for the value of things themselves, that, too, is artificially imputed. Take an exquisite porcelain bowl from the Song dynasty. In the eyes of a collector or connoisseur, it is an immensely precious cultural artifact worth a fortune, an object of obsessive longing they yearn to possess. In the eyes of a layperson unversed in such matters, it is merely a refined craft object of no particular importance. And to someone who has no idea what a cultural relic is, it may well be regarded as an ordinary utensil, no different from any bowl seen anywhere. Though it is the same bowl, people's differing knowledge and preferences create an enormous difference in its perceived value.
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Or consider steamed buns and gold: which is more valuable? Some might think: what a superfluous question. Is there any basis for comparison between steamed buns and gold? Does the answer even require thought? Under normal circumstances, gold is indeed more expensive and harder to come by. But in special conditions, the situation can change. There is a story: a ship encountered disaster at sea, with both a poor man and a rich man aboard. When they jumped overboard to escape, the poor man took steamed buns with him, and the rich man took gold. They drifted at sea for a long time. When hunger became unbearable, the rich man tried to trade all his gold for the poor man's steamed buns, but his offer was refused. In the end, the rich man died of hunger at sea, clutching his gold, while the poor man survived the life-and-death crisis thanks to those steamed buns. In such a perilous moment, which was more valuable---the steamed buns or the gold?
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Because people's views differ, what one person regards as defiled another regards as pure. But these so-called defilement and purity vary from person to person, from time to time, and from place to place. There is no absolute, unchanging standard. The same holds for beauty and ugliness, good and bad, value and worthlessness. In the objective world, there is no absolute defilement and no absolute purity. Therefore, the defiled is not essentially defiled, and the pure is not essentially pure. In this sense, the essential nature of defilement and purity is "neither defiled nor pure."
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{#不增不减}
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### 4. Neither Increasing Nor Decreasing
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"Neither increasing nor decreasing" is spoken in contradistinction to increase and decrease; it defines things in terms of quantity. Going from less to more is increase; going from more to less is decrease. We ordinarily assume that increase is a real, solid increase and decrease is a real, solid decrease. For example, when someone succeeds in business and their assets multiply, their heart soars with delight. Later, when losses pile up and assets shrink day by day, they grow anxious and distressed. In fact, increase and decrease are not fixed. Consider the ocean, with its daily rising and falling tides. At high tide, the seawater seems to have increased; at low tide, it seems to have decreased. From a local perspective, the seawater does indeed increase and decrease. But from the perspective of the entire ocean, has anything ever increased or decreased? Or consider this winter retreat at the Mingyue Buddhist Society: everyone has gathered here from all directions. The number of people at the Society has increased. A few days from now, when the program ends and everyone goes their separate ways, the number will decrease. Looking at the numbers at the Society over these few days, there seems to be an increase and then a decrease. But from the perspective of the whole world, the same people are still there---nothing has increased or decreased.
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People sometimes raise this question: Buddhism teaches rebirth, but Earth's population used to be less than a billion and has now increased to several billion. Where did all these extra people come from? Such questions arise precisely because people look at increase and decrease in isolation. The rebirth taught in Buddhism is not limited to human beings or to the Earth; it speaks from the perspective of the worlds in all ten directions, from the perspective of all sentient life. The population increases because the human realm's living conditions are relatively favorable and there are more causes and conditions for rebirth there. But while the human population on Earth is increasing, other types of life are decreasing---wild animals, for instance, are gradually dwindling and even going extinct. Therefore, looking at humans alone, the numbers may increase or decrease. But from the perspective of the totality of life, it remains neither increasing nor decreasing.
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From these examples we see that the increase and decrease spoken of in the Buddhadharma also cannot be separated from causes and conditions. Increase occurs through causes and conditions; decrease likewise occurs through causes and conditions. Apart from conditions, we cannot speak of increase or decrease. And since they arise through conditions, objectively there is no independent, unchanging increase or decrease. So increase and decrease are merely apparent forms. From this perspective, increase and decrease are "neither increasing nor decreasing."
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Regarding the conventional Middle Way: "neither arising nor ceasing" means that arising and ceasing are vividly present; "neither defiled nor pure" means that defilement and purity are vividly present; "neither increasing nor decreasing" means that increase and decrease are vividly present. But from the perspective of ultimate truth, "neither arising nor ceasing," "neither defiled nor pure," and "neither increasing nor decreasing" carry yet another, deeper meaning. All distinctions---arising and ceasing, defilement and purity, increase and decrease---are utterly ungraspable. This is non-arising and non-ceasing, non-defilement and non-purity, non-increase and non-decrease---to the point where words fail and the workings of the mind come to rest.
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{#六不住世间}
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## Six. Not Abiding in the World
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> Therefore, in emptiness there is no form, no feeling, perception, volitional formations, or consciousness; no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind; no form, sound, scent, taste, touch, or phenomena; no realm of the eye, up to and including no realm of mental consciousness.
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{#蕴处界}
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### 1. The Aggregates, Sense Spheres, and Elements
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In addition to the five aggregates of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness discussed above, Buddhism also designates the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind as the six sense faculties, and form, sound, scent, taste, touch, and phenomena as the six sense objects. Together these are called the twelve sense spheres. The six faculties and six objects, together with eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, and mental consciousness, form the eighteen elements. The aggregates, sense spheres, and elements---also known as the three categories---are different ways of summarizing all phenomena in the universe and human life. We can view the world through the five aggregates, or through the twelve sense spheres and the eighteen elements.
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The five aggregates were explained earlier. Of the twelve sense spheres, "sphere" means a gateway or birthplace. The six faculties---eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind---together with the six objects---form, sound, scent, taste, touch, and phenomena---are the channels through which mental activity is produced. The eye faculty, in conjunction with form objects, produces eye consciousness; the ear faculty, with sound objects, gives rise to ear consciousness; the nose faculty, with scent objects, produces nose consciousness; the tongue faculty, with taste objects, gives rise to tongue consciousness; the body faculty, with touch objects, produces body consciousness; the mind faculty, with mental objects, produces mental consciousness. This is how the six faculties, in conjunction with the six objects, give rise to the six consciousnesses. Furthermore, the convergence of faculty, object, and consciousness produces contact, and from contact arise the mental factors of feeling, perception, volition, and so on. Clearly, the sentient being's mental subject and all psychological activities arise with the faculties and objects as their conditions.
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Among the eighteen elements, "element" carries the meanings of stratum, foundation, basis, and lineage. They classify all phenomena in the world into eighteen broad categories. The six faculties pertain to the physiological world, the six objects to the physical world, and the six consciousnesses to the psychological world.
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The phenomena categorized in these three groupings primarily reveal the phenomenal differences in the world. As students of Buddhism, how should we contemplate the world? The *Heart Sutra* states: "Therefore, in emptiness, there is no form, no feeling, perception, volitional formations, or consciousness; no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind; no form, sound, scent, taste, touch, or phenomena; no realm of the eye, up to and including no realm of mental consciousness." This tells us that with regard to all worldly phenomena, we must recognize them as empty, without intrinsic nature. But we must not mistakenly think that the "no" spoken of here means nothing whatsoever. If we understood it that way, would the sutra not contradict reality? In understanding the "no" in the sutra, we should apply the formula explained earlier.
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For example, "no eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or mind" can be expanded to: the eye is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from the eye; the eye itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is the eye. The same applies to ear, nose, tongue, body, mind, and to form, sound, scent, taste, touch, and phenomena. All phenomena can be observed in this way.
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{#我执的表现}
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### 2. How Self-attachment Manifests
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So what is the purpose of the sutra's statement that the phenomena of the three categories are all empty? The three categories encompass both the world of sentient beings and the physical environment. The world of sentient beings includes the five aggregates, the six faculties of the twelve sense spheres, and the six consciousnesses of the eighteen elements. Worldly people cannot correctly understand these, and so they give rise to the notion of a self within them. They ceaselessly examine and deliberate, clinging to a self in every thought. From this arise self-delusion, self-view, self-love, and self-conceit, forming a mode of life centered on a strong sense of self.
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This self-centeredness, this clinging to the five aggregates as a self, brings sentient beings all manner of afflictions. Afflictions are factors that disturb the mind's tranquility. Once invaded by afflictions, life can never be peaceful or free. Most of the afflictions of sentient beings arise from clinging to a self. Take attachment to the physical body: some are troubled by plain looks; some are troubled by a stout or heavy build; some are troubled by a short stature; some are troubled by a weak and sickly constitution. Because of clinging to a self, even basic necessities like food, clothing, shelter, and transportation give rise to all kinds of afflictions. Regarding food, some worry about where their next meal will come from, while others have grown tired of rare delicacies and worry day after day about what to eat. Regarding clothing, some are distressed at lacking warm clothes, while others have more clothes than they can wear and agonize over which outfit to choose. For the sake of one "self," a whole lifetime can be spent in worry and toil.
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Once basic survival is secured, people then accumulate wealth for the "self's" sense of security. This drives many to work relentlessly and laboriously build careers. Without special skills, finding a job is difficult, requiring one to face fierce competition. Even after finding work, the competition may grow even more intense. If one is fortunate enough to start one's own business, one spends every waking moment exhausting one's mind over this heavy burden. Work is originally meant to sustain life and to live with more quality. Yet modern people often consume their entire lives in work, leaving neither time nor spirit to enjoy life. Is this not putting the cart before the horse? After a lifetime of busyness, when retirement finally arrives, people have fallen so deeply into the habit of rushing that they instead feel lost and adrift.
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To make the "self" more impressive, the issue of reputation then comes into play. The Buddhadharma sums up the foremost desires of worldly people as five: wealth, sex, fame, food, and sleep. From this we can see that the longing for fame is intense and universal. Living in this world, we need not only food, clothing, and shelter but also a certain social standing. This standing depends not only on position and career but even more on our virtue and reputation. If we are virtuous and esteemed, our good name known far and wide, we will be respected wherever we go. Conversely, we will be scorned and rejected. Hence, everyone takes reputation very seriously, and it is not uncommon for people to go to court to protect their good name.
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As part of the existence of "self," thoughts and views are also an important component. By clinging to a self, people tend to be fervently attached to "my" thoughts and "my" views. If they are not understood by others, they feel hurt and distressed. In this world, there are conflicts born of different religious beliefs as well as oppositions born of different political convictions; there are debates stirred by different academic viewpoints as well as divisions arising from different lifestyles. The view of self creates disputes of right and wrong in the world, obstructs harmonious coexistence among people, and, worse still, traps people within their existing views so that they cannot advance, impairing their understanding of the truth. Therefore, the view of self is the root from which all afflictions arise.
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Sentient beings have many more afflictions born of clinging to the notion of self, which we will not enumerate here one by one. In short, all human afflictions have clinging to self as their root. As the *Lamrim Düdön* (*Concise Stages of the Path to Enlightenment*) states: "Driven by the force of self-cherishing and held fast by self-love, from beginningless birth and death until now, we have brought forth every kind of undesirable experience. Though we wish to accomplish even a single self-serving fulfillment, by taking self-interest as our guide and employing mistaken methods, we have, over countless eons, failed to accomplish any benefit for ourselves or others. Not only have we failed---we have been purely oppressed by suffering." Sentient beings cling to a self in the hope of achieving happiness for themselves, yet the result is the opposite: it brings all manner of afflictions.
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{#执著的过患}
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### 3. The Faults of Attachment
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The "no" spoken of in the *Heart Sutra* is precisely a penetrating analysis of sentient life. From the perspective of the Buddhadharma, sentient life is nothing other than a provisional appearance formed by the combination of the five aggregates; it is the coming together of the physiological (the six faculties) and the psychological (the six consciousnesses). Ordinary people cling to the five aggregates as a self, but when observed with prajna wisdom, the so-called self cannot be found anywhere---neither within the five aggregates nor within the twelve sense spheres. We must not cling to the five aggregates as a self, nor must we cling to a self existing outside the five aggregates. If the self were outside the five aggregates, how could it relate to them?
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The *Diamond Sutra*, like the *Heart Sutra*, is a text centered on the teaching of emptiness, and its emphasis lies on "no-self." The sutra states: "If a bodhisattva has a notion of self, a notion of a person, a notion of sentient beings, or a notion of a life span, he is not a bodhisattva." It also says: "When King Kalinga dismembered my body in the past, at that time I had no notion of self, no notion of a person, no notion of sentient beings, no notion of a life span. Why? If, when my body was being dismembered joint by joint, I had a notion of self, a notion of a person, a notion of sentient beings, or a notion of a life span, I would have given rise to anger and hatred." It further says: "One who cultivates all wholesome dharmas free from the notions of self, person, sentient beings, and life span will attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi." And again: "If someone knows that all dharmas are without self and achieves the perfection of patience, this bodhisattva surpasses the merit attained by the previous bodhisattvas." All these passages illustrate the vital importance of no-self in cultivating the bodhisattva path.
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Understanding the truth of "no-self" enables us to transcend the self. Dissatisfied with their present condition, worldly people try every possible means to transcend it, yet their efforts rarely succeed. Where does the problem lie? In nothing other than the obstruction of self-attachment. Our present personality has been shaped around a self-centered core. If self-attachment has not been shaken, how can we possibly change our lives and transcend the self? It is like wearing chains and shackles from head to toe, yet thinking that moving from one room to another will bring liberation. Can that expectation ever be met? To transcend the self, we must first abandon self-attachment and smash the chains that bind us. Only this is ultimate liberation.
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Corresponding to the world of sentient beings is the physical environment. This, too, depends on the sentient being's capacity for cognition: the world of form seen by eye consciousness, the world of sound heard by ear consciousness, the world of scent smelled by nose consciousness, the world of taste tasted by tongue consciousness, the world of touch felt by body consciousness, and the world of mental objects cognized by mental consciousness. Only those endowed with the six faculties and six consciousnesses can experience these six worlds. Without the eye faculty, one loses the world of form; without the ear faculty, one loses the world of sound.
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The Buddhadharma summarizes the physical environment under the above six categories, also called the six sense objects (*dusts*). "Dust" means defilement. In other words, the six objects have the function of defiling the six consciousnesses. Before the six consciousnesses make contact with the six objects, the mind is calm---as the saying goes, "out of sight, out of mind." But once contact with objects occurs, corresponding emotional fluctuations arise. At the sight of an enemy, anger flares up instantly. At the sight of a lover, desire and attachment arise. Upon hearing criticism, we feel hurt and distressed. Upon hearing praise, our hearts blossom with joy. In this way, we are constantly tossed among various emotions, without a moment's peace.
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Because worldly people do not understand the six sense objects, they abide in and cling to them, and so they are stirred by the eight winds. The eight winds are gain and loss, disgrace and honor, praise and ridicule, suffering and happiness. Gain (profit, as in earning money in business) and loss (as in a business loss) are a pair. Disgrace (slander, as when falsely accused) and honor (reputation, as when one's good name spreads far) are a pair. Praise (commendation, as when others extol us) and ridicule (mockery, as when mocked by others) are a pair. Suffering (adversity, as in repeated setbacks) and happiness (favorable circumstances, as when everything goes well) are a pair. The eight winds are the eight most common favorable and adverse situations in the world. Worldly people are blown day and night by the eight winds, now suffering, now happy, now distressed, now joyful. And because they are led by external conditions, their minds are never at peace.
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Abiding in the six sense objects makes us sensitive to the world's praise and blame, honor and disgrace. Names and concepts are originally conventional designations established by common usage, assigned in specific cultural contexts; they are not fixed, substantial entities. Take being called "remarkable": for someone who truly has accomplishments, this is praise; for someone with no accomplishments whatsoever, the same word becomes mockery. The same concept can be commendatory or derogatory. So what, then, is its actual meaning?
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In truth, "remarkable" is just a symbol; it is not the same thing as the facts themselves. If we are praised as "remarkable," we may indeed have exceptional qualities, or it may just be a casual nicety with no real significance. And from another angle, if we truly have the ability, we remain remarkable even if no one praises us. If we are merely seeking fame through deception, we will not become remarkable just because someone utters that word. Yet because worldly people cling to the object of sound, they are always glad to hear flattery and praise. When they encounter criticism or an unpleasant word, they either droop in dejection at the mildest case or fly into a rage at the worst. Thus, the mind is completely at the mercy of public opinion, unable to govern itself.
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Abiding in the six sense objects also makes us preoccupied with gain and loss. Worldly people live perpetually amid gain and loss: in business, one either makes money or loses it; in college entrance exams, one is either admitted or rejected; in love, one either forms a happy union or parts ways; in family life, one either enjoys harmony or falls out with one's loved ones. By ordinary sentiment, people love gain and hate loss. Yet gain and loss are like twin sisters: wherever there is gain, loss is sure to follow, and we often attend to one at the expense of the other. Our time and energy are limited; the more we invest here, the more we will naturally neglect elsewhere. Some throw themselves into their career: they gain wealth, but lose leisure and ease. Some throw themselves into entertainment: they have a great time, but their studies fall by the wayside. Moreover, some gain first and lose later, like those who make a fortune only to go bankrupt; some lose first and gain later, like the King of Yue who slept on brushwood and tasted gall before annexing the Kingdom of Wu; and some oscillate between gain and loss, where losing is gaining and gaining is losing, as in the story of the old man at the frontier who lost his horse.
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Precisely because gain and loss are mutually dependent, we should not cling one-sidedly to either when facing any gain or loss. Yet this is precisely the common pitfall of worldly pursuits. During our student years, we pin all our hopes on academic success. When in love, we entrust all our happiness to the relationship. When building a career, we vest the ultimate value of life in it. If we build our entire life on one single dimension, even if we succeed there, we will often lose many other sources of happiness. And if we unfortunately fail, we will lose our entire spiritual anchor and be adrift and forlorn. Conversely, if we understand the mutual relationship between gain and loss, we will not lose our heads when we gain, for it is only temporary; nor will we be dejected when we lose, for in losing, we often receive another gift from fate.
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In this present age, people's pursuit is perhaps more one-dimensional than in any past era: they think that having money equals living happily. In fact, wealth is only one of many factors that constitute human happiness. Far more important is the health of our body and mind. Without a peaceful mind and a healthy body, we cannot enjoy wealth. When troubled, a person can flee the environment, but no amount of wealth can help one escape the mind. Carrying afflictions along, even if we travel to the ends of the earth, we will remain gloomy and unable to open our hearts.
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For happiness in life, what matters first is inner peace; next is physical health; only after these come externals such as wealth, status, and career. Yet modern people often overlook the importance of mental health. On the one hand, they exhaust themselves in the pursuit of wealth; on the other, once they have it, they indulge without restraint. In short, the mind is frequently in an unbalanced and unhealthy state, and so happiness remains far out of reach. This is precisely why, though the rich are ever more numerous, those who truly feel happy are few and far between. This brings to mind a real-life example. Someone once attended a wealthy CEO's birthday banquet held at a luxury hotel. Relatives, friends, celebrities from all circles, the media---guests from every quarter came to offer congratulations. The occasion was extraordinarily grand. After the banquet ended, he asked the host how he felt. The host replied that he missed the five eggs his mother had boiled for him on his birthday fifteen years ago. Though today's event was a magnificent spectacle, his state of mind was far less joyful and carefree than in those days. Clearly, happiness does not come from external luxury; it comes from inner feeling.
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{#怎样才能不住}
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### 4. How Can We Stop Abiding?
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Abiding in and clinging to the six sense objects brings all kinds of afflictions to human life. If we wish to liberate ourselves from afflictions, we must apply prajna wisdom in our daily lives, constantly contemplating the six sense objects with prajna, illuminating the truth that the six objects are all empty. When this is done, afflictions will naturally cease to arise. When wealth brings us affliction, we can reflect on the *Heart Sutra*'s formula: wealth is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from wealth; wealth itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is wealth. Use this to remind yourself: wealth is dependently arisen; it has no fixed, unchanging substance. It comes together when conditions converge, and disperses when conditions scatter. Wealth is also an apparent form of existence, impermanent and selfless, like a dream, an illusion, a bubble, a shadow. If we can see wealth in this way, will we still be burdened by it?
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Similar to this is the *Diamond Sutra*'s formula. The sutra states: "What the Tathagata calls a world is not a world; therefore it is called a world." "What are called particles of dust are not particles of dust; therefore they are called particles of dust." We can likewise apply this formula to reality. When your husband gives rise to affliction in you, think: what is called a husband is not a husband; therefore he is called a husband. Use this to remind yourself: the marital relationship is not fixed and unchanging. It is only because of certain causes and conditions that you became husband and wife, forming the mutual relationship of husband and wife. But this relationship, too, is subject to the law of impermanence. Once the relevant conditions are no longer present, the relationship will dissolve accordingly. He is your husband now, but in the future he could become someone else's husband. If you can hold this understanding, then when conditions converge, cherish each other; when conditions disperse, wish each other well. In this way, no affliction will arise over it.
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You can reflect on everything in the world in this way. Take children, for example: children are not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from children; children themselves are emptiness, emptiness itself is children. Or: what are called children are not children; therefore they are called children. Take friendship: friendship is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from friendship; friendship itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is friendship. Or: what is called friendship is not friendship; therefore it is called friendship. Take status: status is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from status; status itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is status. Or: what is called status is not status; therefore it is called status. The same applies to wealth, career, family, and everything else. If you can internalize these perspectives in your mind and practice, nothing in the world can become an obstacle to you.
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In this life, everyone hopes to live with a certain grace and ease. What is grace and ease? Some think it means spending lavishly, some think it means wearing brand names, some think it means owning a luxury home and car, and some think it means being the center of attention. In truth, those are merely fleeting glamour. What that glamour brings is often a still greater burden. In life, we can observe that many people, in order to maintain their past glamour and their corresponding standard of living, must toil ceaselessly and rush about endlessly. Once the glamour fades, they suffer anguish and loss. In fact, such glamour is not a necessity of life. I believe that true grace and ease rest on transcending bondage. If we can observe life everywhere with prajna wisdom, not enslaved by things, then we can be at ease in wealth and equally at ease in poverty. That is genuine grace and ease.
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{#七超越生死}
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## Seven. Transcending Birth and Death
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> No ignorance, and no end of ignorance, up to no aging and death, and no end of aging and death.
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The questions of human life are all-encompassing, but in summary they boil down to the two words "birth" and "death." Worldly people care about living, yet living is in fact only part of birth. Where does birth come from, and where does death lead? From ancient times to the present, philosophies and religions East and West have diligently explored the origin of birth and the destination of death. As both a wisdom of human life and a science of life, the Buddhadharma not only investigates the questions of the birth and death of sentient beings in depth but also shows us the way to resolve them.
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From ignorance to aging and death---these reveal the twelve links in the continuum of sentient life, also known as the Twelve Nidanas. Their content is: ignorance conditions volitional formations; volitional formations condition consciousness; consciousness conditions name and form; name and form condition the six sense bases; the six sense bases condition contact; contact conditions feeling; feeling conditions craving; craving conditions clinging; clinging conditions becoming; becoming conditions birth; birth conditions aging and death. Below, I will briefly introduce their meanings and explain their mutual relationships.
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{#无-明}
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### 1. Ignorance
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In Buddhism, light represents wisdom. Ignorance, then, is the lack of wisdom that comprehends the truth of life. Lacking wisdom, one is as though in darkness, filled with confusion, unable to see oneself clearly and unable to see the world clearly. Ignorance is also the root from which suffering arises. In the section "The Great Wisdom of Life," I listed the various kinds of confusion in the cognition of ordinary beings. All of this is due to the ignorance that sentient beings have carried since time without beginning.
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{#行}
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### 2. Volitional Formations
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Volitional formations are actions, primarily including three types. First, mental actions: wholesome thoughts, such as wanting to do good deeds, or unwholesome thoughts, such as wanting to do evil deeds. Second, verbal actions: the various kinds of speech in daily life---there is kind speech, truthful speech, speech that benefits others, and other wholesome speech, as well as divisive speech, harsh speech, false speech, and other unwholesome speech. Third, bodily actions: wholesome actions such as prostrating to the Buddha, reciting sutras, and giving, as well as unwholesome actions such as killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct.
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Because of self-attachment and self-view, people often have great confidence in their own actions, believing that whatever they think, say, and do is reasonable. But do we know the state of mind in which these actions are produced? The Buddha tells us: ignorance conditions volitional formations. For ordinary beings, the mental basis of all actions is none other than ignorance. So the degree of correctness of these actions can well be imagined. More importantly, note that whether an action is wholesome or unwholesome, it does not end when the action itself ends. In other words, any action that has already taken place is transformed into seeds, becoming a latent force that propels the continuation of life. For example, if we donate to a Project Hope education fund, objectively, this good deed benefits some children who would otherwise have dropped out of school. For ourselves, it both nourishes positive mental states such as compassion and overcomes negative mental states such as stinginess. Thus we see that actions of body, speech, and mind not only produce objective results but also exert an influence on the mind. This is something we must pay close attention to.
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{#识}
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### 3. Consciousness
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Consciousness is one of the three main forces that sustain sentient life; the other two are the life span and bodily warmth. The life span is the duration of a single lifetime. Warmth is the temperature the body possesses. For a living being, none of the three can be missing. When the life span comes to an end, consciousness departs from the physical body. Thereupon, the body that could speak and move, sing and dance, instantly turns into a cold shell, then decomposes, decays, and turns to dust. Thus, consciousness is a vital component that upholds sentient life. Influenced by the worldly view of a single life, people see only the existence of the physical body and fail to see the function of consciousness, leading to the mistaken belief that "when a person dies, it is like a lamp extinguished."
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We must understand that the tangible physical body we see is only the form that life takes. The intangible consciousness is the true carrier of life. Therefore, death is merely the ending of one life form. After departing from this physical body, consciousness continues on and will appear again in another life form.
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"Volitional formations condition consciousness" means that consciousness, when linking to the next life, relies on the impetus of volitional formations. Here, "volitional formations" refers to the seeds left by past wholesome and unwholesome actions, also known as karmic force. This is the force that propels consciousness to continue taking rebirth, just as a rocket propels a satellite into space. The *Yogacarabhumi Shastra* describes this process in detail: "At that time, seeing the seminal fluids emitted by the father and mother engaged in the sexual act, the being experiences inverted perception. By inverted perception is meant that when seeing the father and mother engaged in this act, the being does not perceive them as doing so, but instead has the inverted perception that it is engaging in the act itself. Seeing itself engaged in this way, it gives rise to craving and attachment. If it is to become a female, it gives rise to desire for the father. If it is to become a male, it likewise gives rise to desire for the mother. It then presses toward them. If a female, it wishes the mother to go far away; if a male, the mind acts in the same way toward the father. Having given rise to such desire, it then sees only the male or only the female. As it gradually draws near to that place, it gradually ceases to see the other parts of the parents' bodies and sees only the male and female organ. At this point, it is held fast and obstructed." Human rebirth is propelled by karmic force and also driven by the mind of lust. This shows how significant a place sexual desire occupies in the life of sentient beings. In Freud's psychoanalysis, there is the theory of the Oedipus complex and the Electra complex. From the perspective of the *Yogacarabhumi Shastra*, Freud's theory is not without some basis. The rebirth of sentient beings is indeed rooted in the mind of lust: a male develops desire for the mother, a female for the father.
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So what does the sentient being see at the very moment of conception? The *Yogacarabhumi Shastra* also explains this: "Those of meager merit who are to be born into a lowly family will, at the time of death and upon entering the womb, hear all sorts of chaotic sounds and falsely perceive themselves entering into a thicket of trees, bamboo, reeds, and rushes. Those of abundant merit who are to be born into an honorable family will, at that time, hear peaceful, sublime, and pleasing sounds and falsely perceive themselves ascending a palace and other delightful images." Depending on the merit of the one entering the womb, the images perceived at conception will likewise differ.
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Regarding the constitution of life, materialists hold that consciousness is an epiphenomenon of matter. The *Yogacarabhumi Shastra*, however, holds that consciousness has its own system of transmission. The treatise states: "At that time, the father and mother, both overcome with desire, each emits a drop of thick seminal fluid. The two drops merge and settle in the mother's womb, forming a single mass like coagulated milk. At this point, the alaya consciousness, which is the support of all seeds and the basis of karmic maturation, unites with and depends on it. What is meant by 'unites with and depends on'? It means that the thick seminal fluids emitted by both, merged into a single mass, cease to exist together with the consciousness in the intermediate state that has entered under inverted perception." The material basis of life is the seminal fluids of the parents; its mental basis is the alaya consciousness. It is precisely the union of the parents' seminal fluids with the alaya consciousness that constitutes the initial state of this life.
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So what is the relationship between the alaya consciousness and the parents' seminal fluids? The *Yogacarabhumi Shastra* says: "Furthermore, this kalala (the embryo in its first stage) shares a common safety and danger with the mind and its mental factors; hence it is said to depend on them. Because of the supporting power of the mind and mental factors, the material body does not decay or deteriorate. Conversely, when the material body suffers harm or benefit, the mind and mental factors also suffer harm or benefit. Therefore, it is said that they share a common safety and danger. Moreover, the place where this kalala consciousness first takes hold is called the fleshy heart. So it is that consciousness first takes hold here and last relinquishes it here." The alaya consciousness and the parents' seminal fluids are mutually dependent and share a common destiny. When the life span comes to an end, it is again the departure of consciousness that declares the close of this life.
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{#名-色}
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### 4. Name and Form
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"Name" refers to the four aggregates of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness. "Form" refers to the form aggregate. Our present life-form is nothing other than the combination of name and form. Some may ask: we have already discussed "consciousness" separately, and the five aggregates also include a "consciousness aggregate." Are these not redundant? We should note that the "consciousness" mentioned earlier refers to the fundamental consciousness of life, what the scriptures and treatises call the "alaya consciousness" or the "eighth consciousness." The "consciousness aggregate" among the five aggregates, on the other hand, refers to the first six consciousnesses that derive from the fundamental consciousness. As the *Samdhinirmocana Sutra* states: "Depending on and relying on the adana consciousness, the six consciousness bodies operate: eye consciousness, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mental consciousness." The adana consciousness mentioned here is another name for the alaya consciousness. It is only by relying on the alaya consciousness as their fundamental basis that the first six consciousnesses can arise and function.
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After the alaya consciousness enters the womb, under its sustaining power, the initial structure of life undergoes transformation. The *Yogacarabhumi Shastra* explains: "By the functional power of the consciousness that holds all seeds, further subtle faculties and elements arise in combination, and additional elemental seminal fluids sharing the same faculty-type coalesce into a mass. At this stage, the consciousness is said to have settled in, linking one life to the next. This is called the kalala stage." With the fundamental consciousness having entered the womb, the state of gestation has begun. And sustained by the fundamental consciousness, life begins to take form.
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{#六-入}
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### 5. The Six Sense Bases
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The six sense bases, or six faculties, are the six gateways through which sentient life receives information from the outside world. They are the eye faculty, ear faculty, nose faculty, tongue faculty, body faculty, and mind faculty.
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"Name and form condition the six sense bases" means that the six sense bases develop on the foundation of name and form. As mentioned earlier, when a sentient being enters the womb, during the earliest stage of gestation, body and mind are in a state of undifferentiation. Physiologically, the faculties and body have not yet formed; psychologically, the activities of the six consciousnesses are not yet apparent. But as time passes, name and form gradually develop into the six sense bases. The *Yogacarabhumi Shastra* describes this process as follows: "Within this kalala, the great elements of the various faculties arise together only with the body faculty and the great elements of the body faculty's physical basis. By the power of these great elements of the various faculties that arise together with the body faculty, the eye and the other faculties will successively be born. And by the power of the great elements of the physical bases that arise together with the body faculty, the physical bases of the various faculties will successively be born. When these faculties and their physical bases have fully developed, it is called the attainment of the complete physical basis." The great elements of the faculties are the four great elements of earth, water, fire, and wind. Relying on the four great elements as their basis, the six sense bases---the eye and so on---come into being. This describes the formation of the physical body. On the mental side, relying on the seeds of the fundamental consciousness as the basis and the faculties and body as conditions, the six consciousnesses arise as conditions permit.
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{#触}
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### 6. Contact
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Contact is a mental state. Among the fifty-one mental factors summarized in the *Mahayana Shatadharma Prakashamukha Shastra*, it is one of the five universally active mental factors (the five omnipresent mental factors). Its activity spans all three moral qualities---wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral---pervades the three realms and nine planes, extends to both defiled and undefiled, mundane and supramundane states, and corresponds with all eight consciousnesses, hence it is called a universally active mental factor.
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The *Cheng Weishi Lun* (*Treatise on the Establishment of the Doctrine of Consciousness-Only*) states: "Contact refers to the differentiation and transformation that occurs when the three---faculty, object, and consciousness---converge. Its nature is to bring the mind and mental factors into contact with objects. Its function is to serve as the basis for feeling, perception, volition, and so forth." In the Twelve Nidanas, the six sense bases give rise to contact. But in the *Cheng Weishi Lun*, the six sense bases are listed as only one of the conditions for the arising of contact, and the doctrine of the convergence of three factors giving rise to contact is put forward. The three are the correspondence of faculty, object, and consciousness. That is, it is through the convergence of the six faculties, six objects, and six consciousnesses that the six contacts can arise. For example, only through the convergence of the eye faculty, form object, and eye consciousness can eye contact arise. From this we see that "the six sense bases condition contact" means that the six sense bases are important conditions for the arising of contact, but they do not represent the whole picture.
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Contact is the sensation produced by the convergence of faculty, object, and consciousness. As one of the most fundamental mental factors in the mental realm, the mental factor of contact is also the basis upon which all other mental activities arise. Among the five omnipresent mental factors, the three important factors of feeling, perception, and volition all arise on the precondition of contact. The relationship "contact conditions feeling" in the Twelve Nidanas is also based on this situation.
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{#受}
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### 7. Feeling
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Feeling is also a mental state. The *Cheng Weishi Lun* states: "Feeling's nature is to receive and experience favorable, adverse, and neutral objects. Its function is to give rise to desire, by producing the wish for union with, separation from, or neutrality toward objects." Feeling is the function of receiving and experiencing. Receiving what? Receiving favorable objects, adverse objects, and objects that are neither favorable nor adverse. When facing adverse conditions, we give rise to painful feelings and mental distress. When facing favorable conditions, we give rise to pleasant feelings and mental joy. Conditions that are neither adverse nor favorable correspond to neutral feeling. Feeling can give rise to attachment to the object perceived, and thus we develop the wish to cling to, separate from, or remain neutral toward objects.
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{#爱}
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### 8. Craving
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Craving is also a mental state; it means attachment and yearning. When we encounter favorable conditions, the mind naturally feels happy and joyful, and so we give rise to a sense of attachment to the object. What we ordinarily mean by being unable to tear oneself away, or being so enchanted as to forget to return, are all expressions of craving. Driven by desire, human beings show a complex of craving in every context: craving for superior conditions, craving for a harmonious family, craving for delicious food, and so on. Among all these forms of craving, the mutual craving between men and women is the most influential.
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Craving is a kind of possessiveness. Whether it is craving for an object or for a person, once attachment arises, the wish to own it, to make it belong to oneself, follows. Some are attached to a superior material environment, feeling that life is comfortable and pleasant only when these things are present, so they leave no stone unturned to create the necessary conditions. Some are attached to the feeling of mutual affection and so proceed from romance to marriage, hoping to possess the other person permanently and never be parted. The link "craving conditions clinging" in the Twelve Nidanas reflects this process from emotional attachment to mutual possession.
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Craving is also a kind of anxious concern. Those who love their hometown will, no matter how far they travel, always care about how things are changing back home. Those who love their career will, even in their spare time, be constantly preoccupied with work. Those who love their children will have their entire energy consumed by their children's studies and daily lives.
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Craving is moreover a form of bondage. It is like glue, fastening two objects firmly together; it is like a rope---once tied, struggling to escape is futile; it is like a net, in which people become entangled and bound to one another. Hence, worldly people call falling in love "falling into a love net"---a description that is at once accurate and vivid.
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{#取}
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### 9. Clinging
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Clinging is possessiveness. The Buddhadharma distinguishes four kinds of clinging: clinging to desire, clinging to views, clinging to rites and rituals, and clinging to a self. Clinging to desire is the possessive grasping at the five objects of desire: wealth, sex, fame, food, and sleep. Clinging to views is stubbornly holding one's own opinions and notions to be true and correct, even to the point of imposing them on others. Clinging to rites and rituals is grasping at various non-Buddhist, erroneous precepts and practices. Clinging to a self is clinging to a self within the phenomena of the five aggregates, believing oneself to be the greatest under heaven. "Craving conditions clinging" means that we cling to the objects we are fond of and wish to hold on to them firmly.
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{#有}
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### 10. Becoming
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Becoming is karmic existence. When we want to obtain the person or thing we desire, we take action. This action may be moral or immoral. No matter how it is carried out, the action leaves traces that become karmic seeds, stored in the alaya consciousness, and evolve into the driving force that propels the development of future lives.
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{#生}
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### 11. Birth
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Birth is taking rebirth. The continuum of life includes four distinct periods: birth-existence, the present-existence, death-existence, and the intermediate-existence. Birth-existence is the moment of entering the womb and conception. The present-existence is the developmental process of a single lifetime, from conception until death. Death-existence is the moment of dying. The intermediate-existence is the period from death until the moment before the next rebirth. Usually, people assume that life comes to a complete end with death. But in fact, when one life draws toward death, one enters the intermediate state body. The scriptures describe this as "like the two ends of a balance beam rising and falling simultaneously." The appearance of the intermediate state body and the decay of the present physical body occur at the same time. The duration of the intermediate state body ends with the arising of birth-existence, generally lasting seven days or up to forty-nine days.
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"Becoming conditions birth" means that karmic force determines our rebirth. Buddhism recognizes two kinds of karma: one is the directing karma, the other is the completing karma. Directing karma is the overall karma that draws a sentient being toward any of the six realms, such as rebirth in the heavenly realm, human realm, hell realm, or hungry ghost realm---it is directing karma that determines this. Completing karma, also called particular karma, determines the sentient being's specific conditions within that realm, such as being born male or female, rich or poor, beautiful or ugly---all these are determined by completing karma.
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The *Treatise in Thirty Verses on Consciousness-Only* states: "Through the latent forces of various karmas and the latent forces of the two kinds of grasping, when the previous karmic maturation has been exhausted, another karmic maturation arises in turn." Karmic forces are karmic seeds. Through the power of karmic seeds, the fruits of sentient beings' birth and death are summoned. When the effects of the previous karma have been exhausted, other karmic causes successively ripen and continue to propel life into rebirth. Thus, karmic force is inexhaustible, and birth and death are endless.
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{#老-死}
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### 12. Aging and Death
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Aging and death: the process of growing old and dying. After a sentient being takes rebirth, aging and death are inevitable.
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The continuum of sentient life is composed of these steps, which the Buddhadharma calls the Twelve Nidanas---twelve mutually dependent conditions. The Buddhist scriptures define them as: "When this exists, that exists. When this arises, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not exist. When this ceases, that ceases." These four sentences can be condensed into three words: "this therefore that." That exists because this exists. In relation to the Twelve Nidanas: because ignorance exists, volitional formations exist; because volitional formations exist, consciousness exists; because birth exists, aging and death exist. In the Twelve Nidanas, every preceding link is the condition for the arising of the link that follows.
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Moreover, the ancient masters also presented the Twelve Nidanas as a twofold explanation spanning three lifetimes. Ignorance and volitional formations are taken as causes of the past. Consciousness, name and form, the six sense bases, contact, and feeling are taken as effects of the present. Craving, clinging, and becoming are taken as causes of the present. Birth, and aging and death are taken as effects of the future. We should not understand this in a mechanical way. Take ignorance, for example: although it is a cause of the past, in the process of sentient beings' birth and death, ignorance is present at all times and in all places.
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Buddhism also summarizes the Twelve Nidanas under the three categories of delusion, karma, and suffering. Delusion is confusion and represents the condition of sentient life; ignorance, craving, and clinging are classified as delusion. Karma refers to karmic actions; volitional formations and becoming are classified as karma. Suffering refers to the fruits of suffering; consciousness, name and form, the six sense bases, contact, feeling, birth, and aging and death are classified as the fruits of suffering. The continuation of life is that delusion creates karma, and karma brings forth the fruits of suffering. Amid the fruits of suffering in birth and death, we continue to give rise to delusion and create karma. In this way, the cycle of rebirth continues without end into the future.
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From the end of ignorance up to the end of aging and death---this is precisely the method of practice the Buddha taught to his hearer disciples. Sentient beings, following the successive links of the Twelve Nidanas and based on the principle "when this exists, that exists," die and are reborn, birth after ceaseless birth, within the cycle of rebirth. How can we free ourselves from the cycle of the Twelve Nidanas? We must thoroughly understand the laws of its unfolding and observe it through the door of cessation. As mentioned earlier, the principle of the Twelve Nidanas is "when this exists, that exists; when this does not exist, that does not exist." Take aging and death: everyone detests them, yet no one can escape them. Why do we have aging and death? Because we have birth. So why were we born in that life, and why were we born into this family rather than that one? Who is arranging all of this? In truth, it is determined by the karmic forces of past lives. Before karma, all are equal---no one enjoys special privileges. And the reason we created karma in the first place was that we were driven by the urge to possess, not knowing that every cause inevitably brings an effect. In this way, step by step, tracing from effect back to cause, we arrive at the method of contemplation through the door of cessation within the Twelve Nidanas.
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According to the contemplation through the door of cessation: aging and death exist because of birth; birth exists because of becoming---all the way to volitional formations, which exist because of ignorance. Without birth, there would be no aging and death; without ignorance, there would be no volitional formations. The liberation of the Hearer Vehicle is pursued precisely through the door of cessation. By listening to and reflecting on the teachings, one establishes correct views. By cultivating the three undefiled studies of precepts, concentration, and wisdom, one develops prajna wisdom and thoroughly shatters the state of ignorance in life. When ignorance ceases, volitional formations cease; when volitional formations cease, consciousness ceases---until when birth ceases, aging and death cease. Thereby, one attains the great liberation of life.
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To have ignorance, to have aging and death, to flow along the sequence from ignorance to aging and death---this is the realm of ordinary beings. To recognize the faults from ignorance through aging and death, and to extinguish ignorance as well as aging and death---this is the realm of hearers. To observe ignorance through aging and death with the illumination of prajna wisdom, to see that ignorance through aging and death are all without intrinsic nature, all of the nature of emptiness---to realize that ignorance is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from ignorance; ignorance itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is ignorance---this is the realm of bodhisattvas.
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How should we understand "no ignorance, and no end of ignorance, up to no aging and death, and no end of aging and death"? It tells us: without ignorance, there is no cessation of ignorance; without aging and death, there is no cessation of aging and death. In the understanding of hearer practitioners, there is a real ignorance, so there is the extinguishing of ignorance; there is real aging and death, so there is the extinguishing of aging and death. But in the realm of bodhisattvas, observing ignorance through aging and death with prajna wisdom, all are seen as empty of intrinsic nature. In other words, ignorance through aging and death are nothing but apparent forms arising from causes and conditions, like dreams, illusions, bubbles, and shadows. Therefore, bodhisattvas do not merely detest and flee from birth and death; rather, within birth and death, they thoroughly comprehend the ungraspability of birth and death. Within birth and death, they transcend birth and death.
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{#八烦恼即菩提}
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## Eight. Afflictions Are Bodhi
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> No suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering, or path.
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In Buddhism, suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path are called the Four Noble Truths. "Truth" means that which is true and not false. The Four Truths are four principles that are genuinely true. After his enlightenment, the Buddha first turned the Dharma wheel at Deer Park by expounding the Four Truths to the five bhikshus led by Kaundinya. Thereafter, the Buddha taught the Dharma for forty-five years, establishing various Dharma gates, none of which departed from this framework. For this reason, the Four Truths are considered the foundation of the Buddhadharma and are of utmost guiding significance for practice.
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The Four Truths comprise two sets of cause and effect. The truths of suffering and its cause constitute the cause and effect of delusion: the truth of the cause is the cause, the truth of suffering is the result. The arising of suffering from its cause is the defiled cause and effect of ordinary beings. The truths of cessation and the path constitute the cause and effect of awakening: the path is the cause, cessation is the result. Attaining cessation through the path is the pure cause and effect of enlightened ones. This also represents two different ways of living: one is a life grounded in emotion, the other is a life grounded in wisdom. Studying Buddhism is precisely the process of turning from delusion to awakening, from defilement to purity.
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The Buddha is also honored as the Great Physician, because the teachings he established can remedy the illnesses present in the life of sentient beings. The Four Truths were established by the Buddha precisely according to the procedure a skilled physician follows in treating an illness. When a skilled physician treats a patient, he first needs to clearly understand the patient's condition, identify the cause of the illness, and ascertain what degree of recovery the treatment can achieve before prescribing the appropriate medicine. What physicians can treat is only the physical illnesses of humanity. But the Buddha heals the mental illnesses of sentient beings. His treatment procedure is precisely the Four Noble Truths.
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{#苦-谛}
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### 1. The Truth of Suffering
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Suffering is the actual condition of sentient life. Buddhism holds that human life is suffering and that all contaminated phenomena are suffering. Because of this, some say that studying Buddhism is escaping reality, that it is looking for trouble. Such a view is one-sided. When the Buddha said that human life is suffering, it was precisely to help us face life's reality squarely. What reality do we face? Is it our family, wealth, and status? Those are certainly part of reality, but only part. In fact, the greatest reality of human existence is birth, aging, sickness, and death; impermanence, cause and effect, suffering, and emptiness. Only by clearly recognizing these can we effectively resolve suffering, transform reality, and elevate the quality of life. Those who have not studied Buddhism, though busying themselves every day with immediate realities, have never discovered---nor dare they face---the true reality of life.
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Take illness as an example. If people come down with a minor cold or fever, most can remain calm. But if they are diagnosed with late-stage liver cancer or another terminal illness, very few can face it with equanimity. Many patients, before learning about their condition, can still chat and laugh cheerfully. But once they learn the truth, they are plunged into unbearable anguish, even to the point of mental collapse. Their original illness might not yet have been immediately life-threatening and could have allowed them several more years of life. Yet the enormous psychological burden causes some patients to die within a few months. This is why, when a hospital discovers a terminal illness, they usually notify the family but keep it secret from the patient. Why? Because most patients dare not face the truth.
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Death is even more terrifying. Regarding death, Mr. Lu Xun once wrote a story: a certain family was blessed with a son, and many dignitaries, relatives, and friends came to offer congratulations. Some said the child would become a government official; some said he would become rich; some said he had the features of longevity. These people, having spoken auspicious words, were warmly entertained by the host. Finally, a guest arrived and said that the child would eventually die, and was roundly cursed and driven out. In truth, whether the child would become an official or wealthy was all unknown. But no matter how brilliantly the child might succeed in life, death was inevitable. So that final remark was the only honest truth. Yet how many people are willing to accept this reality of life? In fact, people not only refuse to face it; they go out of their way with all kinds of clichés to deliberately cover it up and evade it. In everyday greetings, what we always hear are polite formulas like "wishing you prosperity" and "may you enjoy good health and long life." If someone were to ask, "when will you die?" the listener would undoubtedly find it extremely inauspicious and think the person utterly tactless.
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When it comes to afflictions, people likewise resort to escape. Modern people like to say, "change your mood, change your way of living." When afflictions come, they go dancing, sing, drink, or go online, chat, travel. They change this and change that, yet it is merely a change of form without a change of substance. Through all kinds of activities, afflictions may find temporary relief, but the root problem is never cured. The true solution is to start from the source where the problem arises. When afflictions surface, instead of relying on external things or looking for support, calmly face your own mind and observe the arising and ceasing of the afflictions. Only when we ourselves possess the corresponding immunity can afflictions be effectively countered. Otherwise, we treat only the symptoms, never the root.
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The Buddhadharma teaches us to squarely face the reality of human existence, to confront it courageously rather than passively avoid it. Suffering is precisely the Buddhadharma's penetrating insight into the true nature of human life. The Buddha expounded for us the many kinds of suffering---the three sufferings, the eight sufferings, immeasurable sufferings, and so on. The purpose is not that we passively accept suffering, but that, on the premise of recognizing the suffering of human existence, we actively eliminate suffering and transcend it.
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{#集-谛}
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### 2. The Truth of the Cause of Suffering
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The truth of the cause refers to the causes that summon the fruits of suffering, divided into two categories: the defilement of afflictions and the defilement of karma.
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*[The Defilement of Afflictions]*
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In the Buddhist scriptures, according to their characteristics, afflictions are given various names. Sometimes they are called bonds, meaning something that ties---they bind sentient beings within birth and death so that they cannot escape. Sometimes they are called outflows, meaning leakage---because of afflictions, sentient beings continuously leak all kinds of faults through the six faculties. Sometimes they are called torrents---they can sweep sentient beings adrift through the three realms and six paths, life after life, sinking and toppling. Sometimes they are called clinging---they cling to the fruits of birth and death. Sometimes they are called veils---they cover the pure and wholesome mind. Sometimes they are called defilements---they defile the true nature so that nothing is clearly understood. Sometimes they are called yokes---like the yoke that keeps an ox inseparable from the cart, afflictions keep sentient beings inseparable from the realms of birth and death, causing them to suffer for long eons. From these many names, we can see the role that afflictions play in our lives.
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Regarding the types of afflictions, the scriptures speak of eighty-four thousand. Summarized briefly, there are ten principal ones: greed, hatred, ignorance, conceit, doubt, the view of a self, extreme views, wrong views, clinging to views as supreme, and clinging to rites and rituals as supreme. Greed is the mind of craving for and wanting to possess things. Hatred is the emotion of enmity, distress, and the wish to harm that arises toward disagreeable objects. Ignorance is the lack of knowledge about the truth of the universe and human life, which leads to erroneous notions, words, and deeds. Conceit is looking down on others while clinging to one's own strong points. Doubt is being skeptical about the truth due to a lack of wisdom. The view of a self is clinging to the five aggregates as a self. Extreme views are the two one-sided views that the self is eternal or that it is annihilated at death. Wrong views are denying the law of cause and effect or denying the distinction between ordinary beings and noble ones. Clinging to views as supreme is regarding the view of a self, extreme views, wrong views, and so on as the truth. Clinging to rites and rituals as supreme is observing erroneous precepts and practices in the belief that they can bring liberation. In Buddhism, these ten are called the root afflictions and are the basis from which all other afflictions arise.
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*[The Defilement of Karma]*
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Karma refers to the actions produced on the basis of afflictions, including bodily karma, verbal karma, and mental karma. All actions arise when consciousness, working in conjunction with the mental factor of volition, makes a decision and judgment, which is then carried out as bodily or verbal action, thereby forming karmic force. In terms of ethical quality, karma can be classified into three kinds: wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral. Wholesome karma not only benefits oneself and others in this life but also benefits oneself and others in future lives; unwholesome karma is the opposite. Neutral karma is neither wholesome nor unwholesome. The definitions of good and evil must be judged across the three periods of time. Furthermore, while causes may be wholesome or unwholesome, the fruits of karma are always neutral. For example, the blissful fruits of the heavenly realm or the painful fruits of the hell realm, although they may be favorable or adverse in the present life, do not themselves possess a moral quality of good or evil.
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Wholesome and unwholesome actions take countless forms, but the most fundamental are the ten wholesome actions and the ten unwholesome actions, which are opposed to one another. Here, let us briefly introduce the ten unwholesome actions. First, killing: intentionally ending the life of sentient beings. Second, taking what is not given: appropriating for oneself the belongings of others without permission. Third, sexual misconduct: relationships between men and women not sanctioned by law or social morality. Fourth, false speech: deceptive speech or body language. Fifth, divisive speech (also called double-tongue): speech that sows discord. Sixth, harsh speech (also called evil mouth): speech that hurts others with ill intent. Seventh, frivolous speech (also called flowery speech): lewd songs, indecent words, and vulgar expressions that can provoke afflictions in others. Eighth, covetousness: unreasonable craving for others' wealth, status, and so forth. Ninth, ill will: the intention to harm sentient beings arising from affliction. Tenth, wrong views: denying the existence of cause and effect or the distinction between ordinary beings and noble ones. The ten wholesome actions are the opposites of these ten: refraining from killing up to refraining from wrong views.
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{#灭-谛}
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### 3. The Truth of Cessation
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Cessation means quiescence. It is the state of nirvana realized through thoroughly stilling the confusion and afflictions within life.
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{#道-谛}
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### 4. The Truth of the Path
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The realization of nirvana does not come out of thin air; it requires solid, step-by-step cultivation of the path. This is the content of the truth of the path. There are many methods of cultivation---the so-called eighty-four thousand Dharma gates. Among them, the Noble Eightfold Path holds a central place. It is the constant path of Buddhist practice and the non-dual Middle Way by which sentient beings advance toward nirvana. The contents of the Noble Eightfold Path are as follows.
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*[Right View]*
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Right view is seeing the world and human life as they truly are, in contrast to the deluded perceptions of worldly people. Worldly people, deluded by ignorance, mistake black for white and call a deer a horse. The five aggregates are without self, yet they cling to a self. The world is impermanent, yet they cling to permanence. All phenomena are illusory, yet they cling to their reality. Human life is suffering, yet they cling to it as happiness. They fail to see cause and effect and claim there is no cause and no effect. Endowed with the right view of emptiness, one can break through confusion and thoroughly understand the truth of human life.
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*[Right Thought]*
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Right thought is correct reflection. How one thinks is related to one's understanding. A person who is ignorant, whose life is full of confusion, and who clings to erroneous views cannot have right thought. For our thinking to accord with the truth, it must be founded on right view---only then can right thought be aroused. This is exactly what is meant by "listening to the correct Dharma and reflecting on it in accordance with principle." Right thought is also called right intention. Intention carries the meaning of direction. Right intention means establishing a noble aim in life and using it to guide one's values and conduct.
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*[Right Speech]*
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Right speech is ethical speech. This requires avoiding unwholesome forms of speech such as false speech, divisive speech, harsh speech, and frivolous speech. What we should speak is truthful speech, speech that benefits others, and kind speech. That is to say, the words we speak must accord with the truth of the matter, must benefit others, and must be spoken out of care and loving-kindness toward the listener. It is not a matter of saying whatever the other person wants to hear, nor of imposing on others whatever we want to say.
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*[Right Action]*
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Right action is ethical conduct. There are three kinds of karma: bodily, verbal, and mental. Our threefold karma of body, speech, and mind should avoid the ten unwholesome actions, avoid afflictions, and avoid the habit of being self-centered in everything. Moreover, we should thoroughly comprehend non-self, diligently cultivate precepts, concentration, and wisdom, and broadly practice the Six Paramitas and the Four Means of Embracing---only this is the right action that bodhisattvas should carry out.
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*[Right Livelihood]*
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Right livelihood is the ethical way of earning a living. The "livelihood" spoken of here refers to the profession or means of survival we choose. There are right and wrong forms of livelihood. Wrong livelihood refers to improper means of making a living, such as drug trafficking, gambling, fraud, and other activities that violate the law and social morality. As Buddhist practitioners, we must not only follow legal and moral norms but also observe the standards of the precepts. From the perspective of the precepts, all occupations related to killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech fall within the scope of wrong livelihood. Conversely, occupations that benefit both self and others, conduct that benefits both present and future---this is right livelihood.
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*[Right Effort]*
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Everyone has their own goals to strive for, and reaching those goals requires sustained effort. Depending on the goal, the nature of that effort also differs. Some efforts are ethical and can bring benefit to self and others. Some efforts, however, are mistaken and can lead to crime and disaster. In Hitler's *Mein Kampf*, we see the record of a madman's effort to conquer the world. But that effort brought immense suffering to the people of the world and is the antithesis of right effort. Buddhism opposes efforts that harm oneself and others and encourages efforts that perfect virtue. As the "Four Right Efforts" state: "Prevent unwholesome states that have not yet arisen from arising; abandon unwholesome states that have already arisen; give rise to wholesome states that have not yet arisen; and cause wholesome states that have already arisen to increase." Clearly, right effort is directed toward ceasing evil and cultivating good.
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*[Right Mindfulness]*
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What is cultivated in practice? Fundamentally, it is the correction of our views and thoughts. All human actions are determined by our thoughts. Thoughts can be wholesome or unwholesome, deluded or awakened, defiled or pure. This is why, in the world, there exist the distinctions between ordinary beings and noble ones, between the good and the bad. The *Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch* says: "The thought before is deluded---that is the ordinary being. The thought after is awakened---that is the Buddha." The Buddha and sentient beings may seem worlds apart, but their initial divergence lies only in the single thought of delusion or awakening. As the common saying goes, "lay down the butcher's knife and become a Buddha on the spot." The journey from demon to Buddhahood also lies in this one thought of the mind. From this we can see that grasping our thoughts is the key to Buddhist practice.
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In the Agama scriptures, the Buddha particularly advocated the practice of the six recollections: recollection of the Buddha, recollection of the Dharma, recollection of the Sangha, recollection of the precepts, recollection of generosity, and recollection of the devas. These are the fundamental perspectives that practitioners should cultivate. Recollection of the Buddha is recollecting the Buddha's virtues---looking up to him with deep admiration and aspiring toward his example. Recollection of the Dharma is recollecting the truth of the Dharma, recollecting emptiness and nirvana, and recollecting the methods for severing delusion and realizing the truth. Recollection of the Sangha is recollecting the virtue and dignified conduct of the noble Sangha. Recollection of the precepts is bringing one's conduct into accord with the standards of the law and precepts, thereby guiding oneself toward liberation. Recollection of generosity is outwardly giving wealth and goods to cultivate the field of merit, and inwardly relinquishing afflictions to perfect one's character. Recollection of the devas is not yearning for heavenly blessings, but recollecting the merit and virtue of devas and recognizing the importance of cultivating wholesome actions. Beyond these six, the scriptures also speak of ten recollections, adding: recollection of rest, recollection of the breath, recollection of the body's impermanence, and recollection of death. Recollection of rest is stilling deluded thoughts and bringing the mind to a state of tranquility. Recollection of the breath is focusing attention on one's breathing, knowing whether the breath is coarse or fine, long or short, cool or warm, tethering the mind to the breath so that mind and breath become interdependent. Recollection of the body's impermanence is constantly recalling that the physical body is fragile and impermanent, that life hangs by a thread, and thus no longer clinging to worldly things. Recollection of death is recalling that the god of death is ever at our side, ready to strike at any opening; we must therefore practice with diligence, as if our hair were on fire.
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For the practice of liberation, the Buddha also gave us the four foundations of mindfulness: contemplating the mind as impermanent, contemplating phenomena as without self, contemplating the body as impure, and contemplating feelings as suffering. Contemplating the mind as impermanent is observing the ceaseless change of thoughts, adjusting one's mental state, abiding in right mindfulness, and not being carried away by unwholesome conditions. Contemplating phenomena as without self is observing that all phenomena arise and cease through conditions, without self or anything belonging to a self, and observing them as they truly are without clinging to them as self. Contemplating the body as impure is observing that our physical body, though maintained in outward cleanliness through bathing and changing clothes, is inwardly filled with pus, blood, and waste, with impurities constantly flowing from its nine orifices, and thus not giving rise to attachment. Contemplating feelings as suffering is observing that all defiled feelings, whether painful or pleasant, are suffering in essence and not to be clung to. By constantly practicing the four foundations of mindfulness, one can counteract the four kinds of inverted views that ordinary beings hold: seeing what is impermanent as permanent, what is suffering as happiness, what is impure as pure, and what is without self as self.
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*[Right Concentration]*
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Concentration is one-pointedness of mind. To cultivate concentration, one must choose a wholesome object of meditation and settle the mind upon it, putting a stop to restlessness and drowsiness. Through sustained and stable attention, one develops the power of concentration. Concentration can be right or wrong. Wrong concentration means greedily clinging to the bliss of concentration and sinking into it. The practice of concentration brings tremendous meditative joy, but this joy, too, must not be clung to. The *Yogacara Bodhisattva Precepts* states: "If a bodhisattva abiding in the pure precepts of a bodhisattva takes greedy pleasure in meditative absorption and sees the enjoyment of meditative absorption as a virtue, this constitutes an infraction, a transgression---it is a defiled transgression." If hearers become greedily attached to meditative joy, they cannot advance toward liberation. If bodhisattvas become greedily attached to the flavor of concentration, they cannot benefit others. Therefore, the bodhisattva precepts regard greedy attachment to meditative bliss as a transgression. Furthermore, cultivating concentration for the sake of attaining supernatural powers also falls under wrong concentration. Supernatural powers are abilities that require a sound character as their safeguard. Otherwise, possessing supernatural powers is like a child playing with fire---extremely dangerous, for the child is likely to be burned. For this very reason, in Buddhist practice, wisdom and compassion are far more important than supernatural powers. To neglect virtue while single-mindedly pursuing supernatural powers is absolutely inadvisable.
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Buddhist practice follows the three higher trainings: the training in higher precepts, the training in higher concentration, and the training in higher wisdom. Their sequence is: precepts give rise to concentration, and concentration gives rise to wisdom. From this we see that cultivating concentration is for the purpose of developing wisdom, not for its own sake. Only by developing wisdom can we cut off afflictions and liberate ourselves from birth and death. Hence, only the concentration that gives rise to undefiled wisdom is right concentration.
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The Noble Eightfold Path is the constant path of Buddhist practice and the non-dual Middle Way that leads toward liberation. The Buddha told us: "On the one hand, people's minds cling to objects of desire and cannot leave them---this is not a cause of liberation. On the other hand, they engage in wrong reflection and torment their bodies in seeking liberation." And when the World-honored One was about to enter nirvana, he earnestly admonished Ananda: "Rely on yourself; rely on the Dharma; rely on nothing else." That is to say, liberation should be achieved through one's own effort, following the guidance of the Buddhadharma. And this Dharma is precisely the many Dharma gates centered on the Noble Eightfold Path.
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The Four Noble Truths were mainly taught by the Buddha to the hearers: "This is suffering---you should know it. This is the cause of suffering---you should abandon it. This is the cessation of suffering---you should realize it. This is the path---you should cultivate it." Summed up, the practice of the Four Noble Truths is "know suffering, abandon its cause, yearn for cessation, and cultivate the path." In other words, in the realm of the hearers, there is suffering to be known, a cause to be abandoned, a cessation to be realized, and a path to be cultivated.
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But when the Four Noble Truths are observed with the right view of prajna, the landscape is entirely different. The *Heart Sutra* states: "No suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering, or path." This tells us that when observed with prajna wisdom, the Four Noble Truths, too, are empty of intrinsic nature---utterly ungraspable. Here, we can likewise apply the earlier formula: suffering is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from suffering; suffering itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is suffering. The same applies to the cause of suffering, cessation, and the path. On the phenomenal level, the Four Noble Truths transform defilement into purity. But seen from the essential nature of emptiness without intrinsic nature, suffering, its cause, cessation, and the path are, in this very moment, of the nature of emptiness. Within emptiness, there is no so-called distinction between defilement and purity.
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From the level where the Four Truths are without distinction, we can further realize the principle that "afflictions are bodhi." If the defiled fruits of suffering in the world were eternal and fixed, they would indeed be troubling. But when observed with prajna wisdom, afflictions, too, are empty of intrinsic nature. Suppose, when an affliction arises, we cling to it as the self, take it seriously, and indulge it---very soon we will drown in it and be tormented. On the other hand, if we can use wisdom to contemplate the causes and conditions of the affliction's arising and this very thought of the present moment, the affliction will naturally cease.
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{#九解脱自在的人生}
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## Nine. A Life of Liberation and Freedom
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> No wisdom and no attainment, with nothing to be attained. Because of Prajna Paramita, the bodhisattva's mind is without hindrance. Without hindrance, there is no fear. Far from all inverted views and deluded thoughts, ultimately nirvana.
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Because sentient beings do not understand "existence" well enough, they always live with a mentality of having something to attain, clinging everywhere to all that is in the world. In our lives, we cling to wealth, status, emotions, and family; we cling to our living environment and interpersonal relationships; we also cling to our own views, skills, strengths, and so on. Because of this clinging, we develop an intense possessiveness toward all these things. When our needs cannot be satisfied, our lives are filled with all kinds of afflictions.
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In its short span of just over two hundred characters, the *Heart Sutra*---from "illuminated the five aggregates and saw they are all empty" to "no suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering, or path"---is entirely directed at ordinary beings' mistaken understanding of and attachment to existence. It reveals that existing phenomena are provisional forms arising from causes and conditions, whose essence is empty of intrinsic nature. The purpose is none other than to have us let go of our attachment to deluded objects and deluded thoughts, transcend the dualistic opposition of subject and object, step out of the continuity of the deluded mind, and dwell peacefully in the emptiness of non-attainment. Only then can we, as the *Diamond Sutra* says, give rise to a mind that does not abide in form, that does not abide in sound, scent, taste, touch, or mental objects.
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{#心无挂碍}
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### 1. The Mind Without Hindrance
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"No wisdom and no attainment, with nothing to be attained." Once we realize that deluded objects are empty, we no longer discriminate among them and no longer cling to them. But is this mind that knows and recognizes something substantially real? In fact, the mind, too, is dependently arisen. Take the activity of eye consciousness: it depends on nine conditions---the eye, form objects, light, space, seeds, the simultaneous support, the discriminating support, the defiled-or-pure support, and the fundamental support. Similarly, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, and all other mental activities are likewise dependently arisen. When we recognize that deluded objects are empty of intrinsic nature and distance ourselves from deluded attachment, the deluded mind also ceases to arise. This is what is meant by "when objects are quiescent, the mind is empty; no wisdom, no attainment." When the deluded mind, deluded objects, and deluded attachment have all ceased, what manifests is precisely the prajna wisdom of non-dual luminosity and emptiness.
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"Because of Prajna Paramita, the bodhisattva's mind is without hindrance." *Bodhisattva* is Sanskrit; the Chinese *pusa* is short for the full transliteration *putisaduo*. The Tang gloss renders it as "awakened sentient being," carrying the meaning of one who is awakened and who causes other sentient beings to awaken. Sentient beings are centered on emotion and attachment. Toward everything in the world, they wish to take possession; they want everything related to them to be subordinated to them; they wish to realize their self-worth through the limitless expansion of "mine." Little do they realize that the more they cling, the more they bind themselves. For awakened ones, however, they observe human life with prajna. There is no self and nothing belonging to a self. Thus, they transcend worldly fame and gain, and their minds are without anxious concern.
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During the Tang dynasty, there was a Chan practitioner named Lancan whose cultivation was exceedingly profound and whose renown spread far and wide. One day, the emperor sent an envoy to invite him to the palace. When the envoy arrived, the Chan master was roasting taros in the mountains. After the envoy read out the imperial decree, the master acted as if he had not heard a word. It was the dead of winter, and the master, thinly clad, had cold mucus running from his nose. Seeing this, the envoy urged the master to wipe his nose. Unexpectedly, the master replied, "I have no time to wipe a layman's snot." For in the Chan master's realm, he had long transcended such distinctions and was utterly at ease, free and unconstrained. His poems are a true portrait of this life and inner state:
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The affairs of the world drag on and on, / No match for the hills and peaks. / Green pines that block the sun, / Azure streams ever flowing. /
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Mountain clouds as my curtain, / The night moon as my hook. / Lying beneath vines and creepers, / A slab of rock for a pillow. /
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I do not bow before the Son of Heaven, / Why would I envy lords and kings? / Life and death give me no worry, / What else is there to fear? /
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The moon in the water has no form, / I am forever at peace. / All things are just so, / Originally unborn. /
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Idly I sit with nothing to do, / When spring comes, the grass greens of itself.
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Chan practitioners who dwell in mountain forests, facing green hills and clear waters, have only a single pitcher and a single bowl, utterly free of attachments. For them, even birth and death have ceased to be a problem. What else could possibly trouble them or give them cause for worry?
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During the Buddha's lifetime, Prince Bhadrika and two fellow practitioners were sitting in meditation in a mountain forest. One day, the three could not help calling out, "What joy! What joy!" When the Buddha heard this, he asked, "What makes you so joyful?" Prince Bhadrika replied, "When I was in the palace, I toiled day and night over affairs of state, never knowing leisure throughout the year, and I constantly feared for my life. Though I lived in a luxurious and comfortable palace, dining on rare delicacies, clothed in fine silk and brocade, and guarded at all times by soldiers, I always felt a sense of fear and unease---I could not eat with relish or sleep with peace. Now that I have left home to practice, my mind no longer carries any burden. Every day passes in the joy of Dharma. Wherever I go, I feel relaxed and free, and from deep within my heart, a cry of joy wells up unbidden."
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{#生死自在}
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### 2. At Ease with Life and Death
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"Without hindrance, there is no fear." Sentient beings are bound by attachment. Whatever they possess, they worry about. If they possess wealth, they fear others will have designs on their wealth. If they possess status, they fear others will envy their position. If they possess a beautiful wife, they fear others will covet their family. Even just wearing an expensive new garment, they are afraid of getting it dirty and move about timidly, not daring to act freely. In short, as long as they cling to what they own, they will fear losing it because of that clinging, and their days will be spent in terror.
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The awakened one sees through the rights and wrongs, gains and losses, honor and disgrace of the world. Without clinging, without worry, there is no longer any fear. Even death, which worldly people dread the most, Chan practitioners can face with perfect composure, regarding it as a homecoming. In the history of Buddhism, such stories abound. Take the Tang dynasty Chan master Depu. Before he passed away, he gathered all his disciples and asked them, "How do you plan to handle things after I die?" The disciples immediately responded, "We will present abundant offerings of fruit and prepare various funeral couplets to honor your memory." The master said, "Unfortunately, I won't be able to see those scenes after I die. Why not hold the ceremony ahead of time while I'm still here, so I can enjoy it, and then die? Wouldn't that be better?" The disciples looked at each other in bewilderment but dared not disobey their teacher's instruction. So they set up the mourning hall, wrote the funeral eulogies, and held a grand memorial ceremony. The master watched with great delight, commended his disciples, and then, sitting in meditation, serenely passed away.
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The manner in which Chan master Xingkong departed was also extraordinary. Before his death, the master left a poem: "Better than sitting or standing to die / Is a water burial for me. / It saves on firewood for cremation, / And saves on digging a grave. / Letting go, I simply go, / How swift, how joyful and free. / Who is the one who knows my song? / Old Boatman Monk, only he. / This noble spirit, hard to match through a thousand years--- / Few can sing this fishermen's melody." Then he instructed his disciples to build a wooden tub and carry it to the riverside. Amid the farewells of his disciples, the master climbed into the tub, played his flute, and drifted away with the current. The tub's unique feature was a small hole in its bottom. And so, accompanied by the drifting notes of his flute, the master gradually sank into the water, leaving not a trace. Boatman Monk likewise chose a water burial, as did Master Xingkong. Hence the line in the master's poem: "Who knows my song? Old Boatman Monk." Regarding Boatman Monk, Master Xingkong also wrote: "When the old boatman returned to his native land that year, / The wonder of that traceless place is beyond all measure. / This true spirit I send to all who know my song, / As a finale, the iron flute plays across the water."
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Given that Chan masters could face even death with such composure, how much less would they be troubled by honor and disgrace? In Japan, there was a Chan master named Hakuin, renowned for his lofty virtue. Among his followers was a cloth merchant. The merchant's daughter fell in love with a young man and became pregnant before marriage. Her father was enraged and pressed his daughter to reveal the truth. Fearing that if she told the truth her lover would be killed by her father, and knowing that her father held Master Hakuin in the highest respect, she shifted all the blame onto the master. The father believed her and, without distinguishing right from wrong, beat the master severely. The master offered no defense. When the child was born, they dumped the illegitimate baby on Master Hakuin. The master, like a nursemaid, went begging everywhere for milk to feed the child, enduring endless insults and mockery, yet still offered no defense. Years later, the child's biological father, who had fled far away, learned what had happened and came forward to reveal the truth. The whole family, overcome with shame, went together to apologize to the master. Master Hakuin, feeling he had suffered no particular wrong, still offered no defense and simply returned the child to them.
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{#息灭妄想}
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### 3. Stilling Deluded Thoughts
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"Far from all inverted views and deluded thoughts, ultimately nirvana." Inverted views and deluded thoughts are mistaken ideas that do not correspond to reality. A simpler term is "deluded thoughts." The term "deluded thoughts" originated in Buddhism and later spread widely in society, where its meaning shifted somewhat. Usually, people dismiss unrealistic, hard-to-achieve ideas as deluded thoughts. From the standpoint of the Buddhadharma, these are indeed deluded thoughts. But even ideas that are realistic and achievable, so long as they do not accord with the truth, fall within the scope of deluded thoughts.
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In the view of the Buddhadharma, before realizing the true nature of all phenomena, people live entirely within deluded thoughts. The arising of deluded thoughts has ignorance as its root, desire as its driving force, and attachment as its contributing condition. The link "ignorance conditions volitional formations" in the Twelve Nidanas illustrates that the mental basis of all actions is ignorance---the confusion of life. Any thought that arises in such a state belongs to the category of deluded thoughts.
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Living in the world, people are driven by desire, which stirs up all kinds of corresponding thoughts. When we feel cold, we think of finding clothes to wear. When we feel hungry, we think of finding food to eat. When we feel lonely, we think of getting married and starting a family. When we feel idle and bored, we take an interest in entertainment. When we feel spiritually impoverished, we pursue the arts. When we feel life is painfully short, we turn to religion. In short, whatever desires human beings have, they will have corresponding deluded thoughts. And whatever deluded thoughts they have, corresponding phenomena will appear in their world.
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In addition, attachment is a major contributory condition for deluded thoughts. It is like a child playing with fire on dry firewood, when a strong wind suddenly blows up, and the fire, fanned by the wind, blazes fiercely and burns the family's house to the ground. The child lighting the fire is like ignorance; the dry firewood and house are like desire; the strong wind is like attachment. The fire of desire burns because of ignorance and rages fiercely because of the wind. The deluded thoughts generated by desire likewise intensify as attachment grows stronger. The deeper the attachment, the greater the deluded thoughts.
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Because people focus on different things, each person's deluded thoughts take on different tendencies. For instance, some people focus on clothing and are always keeping an eye on fashion trends, thinking about what to wear to look decent and attractive. They also work hard to earn money to buy clothes, neglecting the inner life in favor of outer packaging. Others focus on family, rushing about day after day to provide for the household, worrying about their children's growth, and managing disagreements among family members. No wonder many practitioners report that they cannot concentrate during sitting meditation or Buddha-name recitation. If we are tangled up in these affairs day after day, if we carry these attachments with us onto the meditation seat, how can we possibly settle the mind?
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Moreover, those who focus on science will have science-related deluded thoughts. Those who focus on art will have art-related deluded thoughts. Those who focus on love will have love-related deluded thoughts. Those who focus on power will have power-related deluded thoughts. Those who focus on the ultimate questions of life will have philosophy-related deluded thoughts. In this world, everyone has their own sphere of attention and their own tendency toward deluded thoughts.
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Deluded thoughts cause us to live in a world constructed by ignorance, unable to see through to the true meaning of the universe and human life. The Consciousness-Only school of Buddhism divides the world into three different levels: first, the nature of universal conceptualization, the state of subjective illusion; second, the nature of dependence on others, the provisional forms that appear through causes and conditions; third, the nature of ultimate reality, the world as it truly is. Due to ignorance, ordinary beings are entangled in the nature of universal conceptualization and cannot recognize the nature of dependence on others, much less realize the nature of ultimate reality. Thus, the key reason humans cannot correctly understand the world lies in cognition itself. If we observe the world with a deluded mind, it is like wearing colored glasses: what we see is naturally a deluded realm, not reality.
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Moreover, deluded thoughts drive sentient beings to exhaust themselves on the journey of life. In nature, the chicken struggles for a handful of grain, the bee struggles for a nest of honey. In society, students work hard for admission to better schools, businesspeople fight to run their enterprises, scholars strive for academic titles---everyone is struggling to realize their own deluded thoughts. The bigger the deluded thoughts, the more intensely and arduously they struggle. Some cannot even let go at the moment of death---truly, "the heavens may one day end and the earth expire, but deluded thoughts stretch on without cease."
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Deluded thoughts also bring people all manner of afflictions. Some are forever sunk in memories and expectations, unable to face the present. Some constantly overestimate their abilities and lament that their talents go unrecognized. Some spend all day scheming and calculating and therefore cannot eat or sleep well. Some yearn for a life of luxury, but it is beyond their reach, leaving them in misery. Sinking into deluded thoughts also makes people mentally scattered and idle. Even if the deluded thoughts can never be realized, the present life still suffers enormous disruption.
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Thus we see that deluded thoughts lead to every kind of fault. Therefore, the *Heart Sutra* exhorts us to be far from all inverted views and deluded thoughts. But keeping far from them is no easy task. When many people first begin sitting meditation, they constantly feel deluded thoughts streaming on endlessly, as the saying goes, "the tree wants to be still but the wind will not stop." What is even more distressing is that the more we try to suppress them, the more actively deluded thoughts surge up, one wave after another. What is to be done? The remedy set forth in the *Heart Sutra* ranges from illuminating the five aggregates and seeing they are all empty, to recognizing that all phenomena are like dreams, illusions, bubbles, and shadows, to not abiding in form, sound, scent, taste, touch, or mental objects, to no wisdom and no attainment, to the mind without hindrance---and deluded thoughts will naturally have nowhere to arise. It is just as Chan master Cangxue said: "Sitting quietly on the southern terrace, a single stick of incense burning, / All day in stillness, ten thousand cares forgotten. / It is not that I halt the mind to rid myself of deluded thoughts--- / It is simply that there is nothing left worth pondering." For ordinary beings whose deluded thoughts fly wildly about, it is necessary to counteract them through meditative contemplation, Buddha-name recitation, and mantra recitation. But for Chan practitioners who see through the truth of all phenomena, there are simply no objects in the world to cling to or become attached to. Thus, deluded thoughts naturally do not arise.
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"Ultimately nirvana." *Nirvana* is a Sanskrit word, translated by meaning as extinction, quiescent extinction, or extinction-and-crossing-over. Extinction means extinguishing afflictions, extinguishing anxious concern, extinguishing fear, extinguishing inverted views and deluded thoughts, and extinguishing attachment to what one possesses. Only in this way can one transcend birth and death. Nirvana is also the true nature of the universe and human life. The *Mulamadhyamakakarika*, chapter "Examination of Nirvana," states: "Between nirvana and the world, there is not the slightest difference. Between the world and nirvana, there is not the slightest difference. The ultimate limit of nirvana and the ultimate limit of the world---between these two limits, there is not a hair's breadth of difference." Judging from the superficial appearances of the world and nirvana, there seem to be distinctions between arising and ceasing on the one hand and quiescent extinction on the other. However, this very moment of birth and death is itself ultimate emptiness; it is itself quiescent nirvana. Therefore, nirvana has not departed from the world; it should be realized right within the appearances of birth and death in the world.
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So is nirvana, then, the same as the arising and ceasing, existence and non-existence, of worldly appearances? No. The *Mulamadhyamakakarika* states: "Even existence is not nirvana, how much less non-existence? In nirvana, there is no existence; where could there be non-existence?" That is to say, nirvana is neither existence nor non-existence; it cannot be known through the relative categories of worldly existence and non-existence. The treatise further says: "No attainment and no arrival; neither annihilated nor eternal; neither arising nor ceasing---this is what is called nirvana." This further clarifies that the substance of nirvana is emptiness, the state wherein afflictions have been quelled. Neither arising nor ceasing, neither existent nor non-existent.
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{#十成佛的唯一途径}
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## Ten. The Only Path to Buddhahood
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> All buddhas of the three times, relying on Prajna Paramita, attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.
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To study Buddhism is to attain Buddhahood. Many people find this statement vague and mysterious: "Can we really become buddhas? Since ancient times, who exactly has become a buddha?" The *Heart Sutra* states: "All buddhas of the three times." The three times refer to the past, the present, and the future. "All" means many. That is to say, from the past to the present and into the future, there are countless, boundless buddhas. We are familiar with Shakyamuni Buddha, Amitabha Buddha, Medicine Master Buddha, and the like, but in reality, the buddhas who have reached perfect enlightenment are far more than these. Many Mahayana sutras and treatises speak of buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges in all ten directions, presently teaching the Dharma and liberating sentient beings.
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The *Amitabha Sutra*, recited by Buddhists in their daily morning and evening liturgy, records the buddhas of the ten directions. The sutra states: "The sentient beings of that land, always in the clear morning, each take robes and fill them with a multitude of wondrous flowers to make offerings to ten trillion buddhas in other directions." The sutra also describes the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss, explaining that its realm lies to the west of our Saha world, separated from us by ten trillion buddha lands. The sutra goes on to list the buddhas of the six directions who praise Amitabha's Pure Land: "In the eastern direction, there are also Akshobhya Buddha, Sumeru Form Buddha, Great Sumeru Buddha, Sumeru Light Buddha, and Wondrous Sound Buddha, and buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges... In the southern direction, there are Sun Moon Lamp Buddha, Renowned Light Buddha, Great Blazing Shoulders Buddha, Sumeru Lamp Buddha, and Immeasurable Vigor Buddha, and buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges... In the western direction, there are Immeasurable Life Buddha, Immeasurable Form Buddha, Immeasurable Banner Buddha, Great Light Buddha, Great Brightness Buddha, Jewel Form Buddha, and Pure Light Buddha, and buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges... In the northern direction, there are Blazing Shoulders Buddha, Supreme Sound Buddha, Hard to Obstruct Buddha, Sun-Born Buddha, and Net Brightness Buddha, and buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges... In the lower direction, there are Lion Buddha, Renowned Buddha, Renowned Light Buddha, Dharma Buddha, Dharma Banner Buddha, and Dharma Upholding Buddha, and buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges... In the upper direction, there are Brahma Sound Buddha, Constellation King Buddha, Supreme Fragrance Buddha, Fragrant Light Buddha, Great Blazing Shoulders Buddha, Varied Jewel Flower Adornment Buddha, Sala Tree King Buddha, Jewel Flower Virtue Buddha, the Buddha Who Sees All Meanings, and Thus Like Mount Sumeru Buddha, and buddhas as numerous as the sands of the Ganges." This also reflects, from one perspective, just how numerous the buddhas are.
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So how do we, as ordinary beings, attain Buddhahood? The sutra states: "All buddhas of the three times, relying on Prajna Paramita, attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi." This tells us that all buddhas of the ten directions and three times attain Buddhahood through prajna. From this, we can also see the essential role of prajna wisdom in attaining Buddhahood: it runs through every stage of a sentient being's journey from studying Buddhism to becoming a buddha. Yet prajna is the wisdom of noble ones. How can ordinary beings realize it, how can they grasp it? Buddhism speaks of three kinds of prajna: first, prajna of the written word; second, prajna of contemplative illumination; third, prajna of true reality. Among these, only prajna of true reality represents the essence of prajna. The prajna of the written word and prajna of contemplative illumination are called prajna only because they can give birth to and nurture prajna.
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Below, I will briefly introduce prajna and the methods for attaining it.
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{#学佛须从文字般若下手}
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### 1. Studying the Buddha-dharma Must Begin with the Prajna of the Written Word
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The Buddhadharma tells us: "Through listening, reflecting, and practicing, enter the gate of liberation." Or: "Draw near to good spiritual friends, listen to the correct Dharma, reflect on it in accordance with principle, and practice the Dharma in conformity with the Dharma." In the Noble Eightfold Path, too, right view and right thought are placed first. But we must understand that the prajna of the written word does not mean taking the words themselves as prajna. There is a great deal of worldly writing, and in many cases, the knowledge formed by words not only fails to arouse prajna but is precisely what obstructs it.
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Therefore, the Buddha particularly cautioned us: only by drawing near to good spiritual friends can we listen to the correct Dharma and, through reflection in accordance with principle, attain the prajna of the written word. In the Agama scriptures, the Buddha emphasized the importance of drawing near to good spiritual friends: "I, too, attained supreme, perfect enlightenment through relying on good spiritual friends. Having attained the fruits of the Path, I liberated countless, immeasurable sentient beings, freeing them all from birth, aging, sickness, and death... Those who associate with good spiritual friends will see their faculty of faith increase, and they will become fully endowed with the virtues of listening, generosity, and wisdom." As the saying goes, one who stays near vermilion gets stained red, and one who stays near ink gets stained black. Drawing near to good spiritual friends produces precisely this staying-near-vermillion effect. If even a being of such great wisdom as the Buddha attained accomplishment by drawing near to good spiritual guides, how much more so ordinary beings like us?
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The correct Dharma is the Tathagata's teachings. Because worldly people are ignorant, they cannot correctly recognize the true nature of all phenomena. They mistake black for white and are caught in endless afflictions and deluded thoughts, which obscure the innate wisdom and virtue within them. Listening to the correct Dharma enables us to see the universe and human life correctly, to know as they truly are the conditioned-arising nature, the causal nature, the impermanent nature, the suffering nature, and the empty nature of the world, and to transform the mistaken views accumulated since time without beginning, thereby stilling the deluded mind. Once the deluded mind is stilled, prajna wisdom naturally manifests.
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Of the three kinds of prajna, the prajna of the written word gives rise to the prajna of contemplative illumination---this is the practice of illuminating the true nature of all phenomena. The *Heart Sutra*'s phrases "illuminated the five aggregates and saw they are all empty" and "form is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from form; form itself is emptiness, emptiness itself is form" are all realized through the prajna of contemplative illumination. It is by correctly perceiving the true nature of all phenomena through the prajna of contemplative illumination that one can realize the prajna of true reality---also called the wisdom of all modes, the true nature that is neither quiescent nor illuminating, far removed from all delusion.
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{#声闻乘的五分法身以慧为核心}
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### 2. The Fivefold Dharma Body of the Hearer Vehicle Has Wisdom at Its Core
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The fivefold Dharma body consists of precepts, concentration, wisdom, liberation, and the knowledge and vision of liberation. Precepts are the behavioral standards that bring about liberation. Ordinarily, our six faculties operate under the sway of emotions. Ordinary beings, through the force of self-attachment and the three poisons of greed, hatred, and ignorance, cannot help but commit various evil deeds such as killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech. The precepts have the function of guarding against wrong and putting a stop to evil; they can tame the body and mind, regulate behavior, help us restrain the six faculties, purify the threefold karma, and at the same time limit the proliferation of deluded thoughts. For those who observe the precepts in accordance with the Dharma, body and mind will gradually grow simpler, which is beneficial for meditative cultivation. Hence it is said that precepts can give rise to concentration. And further, concentration can give rise to wisdom. For ordinary beings, the light of prajna wisdom is covered and obstructed by deluded thoughts and attachments. If one uses the power of concentration to still deluded thoughts, undefiled wisdom will brightly manifest. When wisdom is uncovered, one can thoroughly eliminate afflictions and accomplish liberation. Finally, one accomplishes the knowledge and vision of liberation, which includes the wisdom of exhaustion and the wisdom of non-arising. The wisdom of exhaustion is the wisdom of having exhausted all afflictions and entered the stage beyond learning. The wisdom of non-arising is the wisdom that realizes the patient endurance of the non-arising of phenomena. Both kinds of wisdom arise after liberation has been accomplished; they are the subsequently attained wisdom of constant, unobstructed illumination.
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Why does the fivefold Dharma body have wisdom at its core? Because observing precepts and cultivating concentration are not uniquely Buddhist practices. Take the observance of precepts: various religions in the world all have corresponding precepts, and even in secular society, each nation has laws that are analogous to precepts. As for cultivating concentration, many non-Buddhist paths in India have methods for practicing concentration, and the breathing techniques of Chinese Daoism also fall within the scope of concentration practice. Even the four dhyanas and eight concentrations of Buddhism are likewise mundane meditative states. Though Buddhism emphasizes precepts and concentration, it does not regard the mere observance of precepts as the ultimate. That is to say, merely observing precepts without activating wisdom cannot lead to liberation. Among the six root afflictions, the clinging of non-Buddhist paths to the observance of precepts as a means of liberation is classified as clinging to rites and rituals. Furthermore, Buddhism does not take the cultivation of concentration as the ultimate, either. In the bodhisattva precepts, even greedy clinging to the flavor of meditative absorption is regarded as a transgression. What sets Buddhism apart from other religions is that the observance of precepts and the cultivation of concentration it advocates are both pathways for developing undefiled wisdom. It is through precepts and concentration that wisdom is attained. And only with wisdom can one liberate oneself from afflictions and realize nirvana.
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{#菩萨道的六度法门以般若为导}
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### 3. The Six Paramitas of the Bodhisattva Path Take Prajna as Their Guide
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The Six Paramitas, also known as the six perfections, are the six principal Dharma gates for cultivating the bodhisattva path. They are: generosity, precepts, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and prajna. The ancient masters said: "The five perfections are like the blind; prajna is like a torch." Worldly people also practice the first five of the Six Paramitas, but lacking the guidance of prajna, what they do are merely ordinary worldly good deeds and cannot be elevated to the status of provisions for awakening. Below, I will introduce the Six Paramitas one by one.
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*[Generosity]*
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Generosity is what we ordinarily call giving. The *Mahayana-samgraha* states: "It can break through miserliness and poverty and can attract the provisions of vast wealth, status, and merit; therefore it is called generosity." Generosity encompasses various dimensions, such as giving material goods, giving the Dharma, and giving fearlessness. Giving material goods means helping others with material possessions. Giving the Dharma means helping others with the Buddhadharma one has learned and with knowledge and skills. Giving fearlessness means giving sentient beings a sense of safety and security through loving-kindness and compassion.
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Generosity not only benefits others but also brings immense benefit to oneself. On the one hand, generosity enables us to break through miserliness. Ordinary beings are greedy for wealth and, when faced with those in need, are often unwilling to give because of their stinginess. Even items that are barely ever used suddenly seem important the moment they are about to be given away. Generosity is precisely an effective method for overcoming miserliness. On the other hand, generosity also allows us to broadly plant the field of merit and transform the causes of poverty. Ordinary beings are short-sighted, thinking that when they give a little, they lose a little. Little do they know that generosity is like a farmer sowing seeds: every seed will bring a bountiful return. If farming the land may sometimes yield less due to natural disasters and other causes, farming the field of merit is entirely risk-free and is certain to bring reward. The broader and purer one's aspiration, the greater the harvest. Can those who are reluctant to sow seeds in spring hope for a harvest in autumn? If they knew they had missed a golden opportunity because of their stinginess, they would surely be filled with regret. Many who suffer poverty all their lives do so precisely because they were unwilling to practice generosity in past lives. If they do not begin to change this karmic cause now, their plight will be hard to alter. It is like trying to farm barren land: no matter how hard you work, it is difficult to yield much. Only by improving the soil can the problem be fundamentally solved. Therefore, generosity can both break through poverty and bring blessings.
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We should also pay special attention to some problems that are prone to arise in the practice of generosity. Some people give in order to gain a good reputation---to fish for fame and compliments. Some people give because they feel indebted to someone---to ease their conscience. Some people give to show off their wealth---to appear superior. Some people give to ward off misfortune---to avert disaster through financial loss. Some people give to win support---to curry favor. Some people give out of competitiveness---to show off. Some people give out of utilitarianism---as a way to make a profit. From the Buddhist perspective, all such giving is not in accord with the Dharma and is not ultimate. Although it may bring corresponding benefits, the mistaken motivation will lead to various undesirable consequences. As it is said, "if the causal ground is not genuine, the result will be distorted."
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Thus, generosity, too, must be practiced under the guidance of prajna. The *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra* states: "The bodhisattva-mahasattva, dwelling in Prajna Paramita through the method of non-abiding, should fulfill the perfection of generosity through the method of nothing to be given---the giver, the recipient, and the gift are all ungraspable." Giving in accordance with the Dharma arises from a mind of compassion and is practiced in response to the needs of the world. At the time of giving, one does not abide in the mark of giving, does not regard oneself as the giver, the other as the recipient, or cling to how much one has given. This is exactly what the *Diamond Sutra* says: "A bodhisattva should practice giving without abiding in anything---that is, giving without abiding in form, without abiding in sound, scent, taste, touch, or mental objects. Subhuti! A bodhisattva should practice giving in this way, without abiding in any mark. Why? If a bodhisattva gives without abiding in any mark, his merit is inconceivable and immeasurable." To practice generosity without abiding in any mark---its merit is as vast and boundless as empty space, inexhaustible.
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*[Precepts]*
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Buddhist precepts are mainly divided into hearer precepts and bodhisattva precepts. Hearer precepts emphasize the cessation of evil, such as the five precepts and eight precepts for laypeople, and the novice precepts and fully ordained monk precepts for monastics. Bodhisattva precepts, building on this foundation, advocate actively doing good and are composed of the three groups of pure precepts. First, the precepts of restraint: putting a stop to all evil actions. Second, the precepts of embracing wholesome dharmas: practicing all wholesome dharmas. Third, the precepts of benefiting sentient beings: bringing benefit to all sentient beings. As the *Mahayana-samgraha* states: "It can extinguish evil precepts and evil destinies, and can obtain good destinies and meditative stability; therefore it is called precepts."
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"Precepts are the root of the unsurpassed awakening." For practice, observing the precepts holds profound significance. First, it can extinguish evil precepts: by receiving and upholding the pure precepts established by the Buddha, one will no longer adhere to the various evil precepts of folk religions or non-Buddhist paths. Second, it can close the door to the evil destinies: observing the precepts can stop all evil actions so that one no longer falls into the evil destinies. Third, it can give rise to good destinies: observing the precepts can bring us birth in the good paths of humans and devas. Fourth, observing the precepts can bring about meditative stability: stability is concentration, that is, precepts give rise to concentration.
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On the surface, the precepts may seem to place great emphasis on form and detail, making it easy for people to become attached to appearances. But we must understand that observing the precepts is not an end in itself; the purpose is to regulate conduct and tame body and mind through the precepts. If we spend our days merely obsessing over what should be done and what should not, or what constitutes an offense and what does not, forgetting the fundamental spirit of the precepts and the ultimate meaning of upholding them, we will instead be bound by the precepts. If we can uphold the precepts under the guidance of prajna, we can avoid this error. The *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra* states: "Because offense and non-offense are both ungraspable, one should fulfill the perfection of precepts." From the perspective of conditioned arising, although there is a distinction between observing and transgressing the precepts, on the level of emptiness, the marks of observing and transgressing are utterly ungraspable. Therefore, a bodhisattva must earnestly observe the precepts while simultaneously not clinging to the marks of doing so. Only in this way can one observe the precepts in accord with the Dharma and perfect the cultivation of the bodhisattva path.
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*[Patience]*
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The *Mahayana-samgraha* states: "It can completely extinguish anger, resentment, and enmity, and it can well establish well-being for oneself and others; therefore it is called patience." Patience embodies the bodhisattva's inner cultivation and includes three kinds: the patience of enduring the harm of enemies, the patience of accepting suffering, and the patience of discerning the Dharma. The patience of enduring the harm of enemies means bearing the various unreasonable attacks and accusations of enemies and adversaries. The patience of accepting suffering means remaining composed under all kinds of adverse conditions such as physical illness and weakness, extreme cold or heat, lack of food and clothing, and so on. The patience of discerning the Dharma means recognizing and accepting truths that differ greatly from one's own views.
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Patience enables us to dispel anger. When the seeds of hatred sprout, if we lack patience, anger will arise. But if we can calmly accept everything, including the harm done by others, we will not make enemies of anyone. Thus, patience brings inner peace and mutual harmony. The *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra* states: "Because the mind is unmoved, one should fulfill the perfection of patience." Ordinary people cannot practice patience precisely because their minds are stirred by external conditions. How can we remain unmoved in the face of any situation? We must observe with prajna wisdom, illuminating the truth that the dual marks of self and phenomena are utterly ungraspable. In the *Diamond Sutra*, the Buddha recalled that when his body was dismembered by King Kalinga in the past, the reason he was able to give rise to not even the slightest anger was precisely because he had realized non-self. In studying the Buddha-dharma and practicing, we too should observe with prajna, knowing that all phenomena are like illusions, and remain unmoved by conditions. If we can achieve this, there is actually nothing in the world that needs to be endured. Only this is perfect patience.
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*[Diligence]*
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The *Mahayana-samgraha* states: "It can distance one from all indolence and evil, unwholesome dharmas, and can give rise to immeasurable wholesome dharmas and cause them to increase; therefore it is called diligence." Diligence is what we ordinarily call effort. But not all effort falls within the scope of diligence; diligence has a specific content: first, stopping evil, and second, doing good. Only the effort to stop evil and do good is the right diligence emphasized in Buddhism.
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Diligence further includes three types: armor-like diligence, diligence in cultivating wholesome dharmas, and diligence in benefiting sentient beings. Armor-like diligence uses the metaphor of a warrior going into battle to describe the bodhisattva's courageous, unflagging effort in putting a stop to evil actions and cutting off afflictions. Diligence in cultivating wholesome dharmas is the diligent, vigorous cultivation of all wholesome dharmas. Diligence in benefiting sentient beings is benefitting sentient beings without interruption.
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The significance of diligence lies in stopping unwholesome dharmas, countering indolence, and causing wholesome dharmas to grow day by day. Diligence, too, must proceed under the guidance of prajna. Throughout their lives, worldly people strive for wealth, family, and status---this cannot be considered anything but "diligence." Sometimes they are even "diligent" in killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and false speech. Although they gain some immediate benefits, they create boundless transgressions. Diligence guided by prajna takes stopping evil and doing good as its standard. Such diligence not only ensures that our conduct in this life accords with the Dharma, giving us peace of mind, but also brings endless benefit in the future.
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*[Meditative Concentration]*
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The *Mahayana-samgraha* states: "It can eliminate all distraction and restlessness and can lead the mind to inner stability; therefore it is called meditative concentration." Meditative concentration is the opposite of scatteredness. Like water and fire, where there is scatteredness, there can be no meditative concentration; once meditative concentration is achieved, scatteredness is eliminated. Meditative concentration also temporarily stills deluded thoughts, bringing inner tranquility.
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The *Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra* states: "Because one is not scattered and does not cling to the flavor of meditation, one should fulfill the perfection of meditative concentration." When one cultivates meditative concentration under the guidance of prajna, one illuminates all phenomena as illusory and magical. When the mind no longer follows the turns of external conditions, it naturally remains unmoved, far from all turmoil. In addition, worldly people who practice meditation are prone to cling greedily to the joy of meditation. If we observe with prajna, we can avoid abiding in any mark and keep far from clinging to the flavor of meditation.
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*[Prajna]*
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*Buddha* is a Sanskrit word, translated into Chinese as the Awakened One or the Wise One. *Pusa* (bodhisattva) is short for *putisaduo*, in which *puti* (*bodhi*) means wisdom and awakening. So attaining Buddhahood is not something vague or ethereal; it is the perfection of consummate wisdom and compassion. It is also called unsurpassed, perfect awakening.
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In the practice of the hearer path of liberation, the Dharma gates that lead to the attainment of nirvana are collectively called the thirty-seven factors of awakening. They are: the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of awakening, and the Noble Eightfold Path. "Factors of awakening" means causes of awakening. That is to say, these thirty-seven Dharma gates are the causes that lead to awakening.
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Buddhahood is the fruition of wisdom. Hence, the Buddhist scriptures also describe wisdom as the mother that gives birth to all buddhas. The *Vimalakirti Sutra*, chapter "The Buddha Path," states: "The perfection of wisdom is the bodhisattva's mother; skillful means is the father. All the guides of beings without exception are born from these." The sutra compares wisdom to the mother of the buddhas of the three times: the appearance of all buddhas in the world is accomplished through wisdom.
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The *Mahaprajnaparamita Upadesha* likewise says: "All buddhas and bodhisattvas who can benefit all beings---prajna is their mother, able to give them birth and nurture them. The Buddha is the father of sentient beings; prajna can give birth to the Buddha. Thus, prajna is the grandmother of all sentient beings." Because prajna can nurture all buddhas, it is just like the mother of the buddhas. If we regard the Buddha as the loving father of sentient beings, then since prajna can give birth to the Buddha, it can well be called the grandmother of sentient beings.
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{#十一无上法门}
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## Eleven. The Supreme Dharma Gate
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> Therefore, know that Prajna Paramita is the great divine mantra, the great bright mantra, the supreme mantra, the unequaled mantra. It can remove all suffering. It is true, not false.
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Here, the Buddha describes the Prajna Dharma gate as "the great divine mantra, the great bright mantra, the supreme mantra, the unequaled mantra." In the *Diamond Sutra*, he calls the Prajna Dharma gate "taught by the Tathagata for those of the Great Vehicle, taught for those of the Supreme Vehicle." From this we can see that this Dharma gate is indeed supremely wondrous and rare.
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A mantra is a secret formula, difficult to explain in ordinary language and possessing special spiritual power. It is also called a divine spell, a binding spell, a secret spell, or a true word. It is a secret formula chanted during prayers, with the power to bring blessings, avert calamities, and so on. According to traditional Indian belief, mantras can accomplish what is beyond human power. Before the emergence of Buddhism, mantras were already prevalent in ancient India. Therefore, when the Buddha taught the Dharma, he also frequently employed mantras. This is especially so in the Esoteric school, which places particular emphasis on mantras.
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The *Heart Sutra* compares the Prajna Dharma gate to a great divine mantra, illustrating that the power of the Prajna Dharma gate is matchless, able to swiftly eliminate the afflictions of human life, invincible in all circumstances. It compares it to a great bright mantra, illustrating that prajna is the supreme light of wisdom, able to thoroughly dispel the darkness of the world, conquering all before it. It compares it to a supreme mantra, illustrating that the Prajna Dharma gate occupies the highest, most exalted position among all Buddhist Dharma gates. It compares it to an unequaled mantra, illustrating that no Dharma gate can be mentioned in the same breath or placed on the same level as the Prajna Dharma gate. From these various comparisons, we can see how highly the Buddha esteemed the Prajna Dharma gate.
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{#十二劝-勉}
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## Twelve. Exhortation
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> Therefore, the Prajna Paramita mantra was proclaimed. The mantra goes: Gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha.
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Having described the sublime nature of the Prajna Dharma gate through various comparisons, the text now uses a mantra to summarize it.
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The cultivation of the Prajna Dharma gate proceeds from listening to and reflecting on the teachings, moving from the prajna of the written word into the prajna of contemplative illumination, and thereby realizing the prajna of true reality. But for those of dull faculties, there may be no capacity to listen to the Dharma and reflect on it. So the Buddha offered another path to the attainment of prajna: through single-minded recitation of the mantra, reaching one-pointedness of mind, one can distance oneself from discrimination, and then, through attaining concentration, activate wisdom.
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It is commonly thought that mantras have no specific meaning, but this is because we lack understanding of mantras. Mantras are transliterations of Sanskrit, and if we do not know Sanskrit, we naturally cannot interpret them literally. If we translate mantras by meaning, though we may not penetrate their full depth, we can at least grasp the general sense. The mantra of the *Heart Sutra* is: "Gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha." Among these words, *gate* means "go"; *para* means "to the other shore"; *sam* means "all, together"; *bodhi* means "awakening"; and *svaha* means "swift accomplishment."
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Thus, the combined meaning is: Go, go, go to the other shore, all go to the other shore together! May perfect awakening be swiftly accomplished!
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iacore