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 # Buddhism and the Belt and Road Initiative
 
 ——2018年秋与中国社科院学部委员魏道儒教授对话
----A Dialogue with Professor Wei Daoru, Member of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Autumn 2018
-{% 学部委员 = CASS Academician (highest academic title), not merely "member" %}
+---A Dialogue with Professor Wei Daoru, Academician of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Autumn 2018
+{% 学部委员 = CASS Academician (highest academic title); rendered "Academician" not "Member" %}
 
 2018年10月30日，举世瞩目的世界佛教论坛在福建莆田召开，全世界的佛教领袖、高僧大德云集于此，就当代佛教和人类社会发展中存在的问题展开讨论。其中，新媒体论坛以“佛教与一带一路”为主题，邀请中国社会科学院学部委员、世界宗教研究所魏道儒教授，与戒幢佛学研究所济群法师对话。两位嘉宾从“感悟佛教、文化性格、西来东渐、信仰实践、和平互鉴”五个方面深入交流，令与会者深受启发。本次对话由北京佛教文化研究所定明法师策划，浙江大学东亚宗教文化研究中心主任孙英刚教授主持。
-On October 30, 2018, the widely anticipated World Buddhist Forum convened in Putian, Fujian. Buddhist leaders and eminent monks from around the world gathered to discuss pressing issues in contemporary Buddhism and human society. One of the new media forums, themed "Buddhism and the Belt and Road," featured a dialogue between Professor Wei Daoru — Member of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) and research fellow at the Institute of World Religions — and Master Jiqun of the Jiechuang Institute of Buddhist Studies. The two guests explored five dimensions — "understanding Buddhism, cultural character, eastward transmission, faith in practice, and mutual learning for peace" — offering the audience deep inspiration. The dialogue was planned by Master Dingming of the Beijing Buddhist Culture Research Institute and moderated by Professor Sun Yinggang, Director of the Center for East Asian Religious Culture Studies at Zhejiang University.
+On October 30, 2018, the widely anticipated World Buddhist Forum convened in Putian, Fujian. Buddhist leaders and eminent monks from around the world gathered to discuss pressing issues in contemporary Buddhism and human society. One of the new media forums, themed "Buddhism and the Belt and Road," featured a dialogue between Professor Wei Daoru — Academician of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) and research fellow at the Institute of World Religions — and Master Jiqun of the Jiechuang Institute of Buddhist Studies. The two guests explored five dimensions — "understanding Buddhism, cultural character, eastward transmission, faith in practice, and mutual learning for peace" — offering the audience deep inspiration. The dialogue was planned by Master Dingming of the Beijing Buddhist Culture Research Institute and moderated by Professor Sun Yinggang, Director of the Center for East Asian Religious Culture Studies at Zhejiang University.
 {% 世界佛教论坛 = World Buddhist Forum (official name); 高僧大德 = eminent monks and virtuous ones %}
 
 ## 一、对佛教的感悟
@@ -14,10 +14,10 @@ On October 30, 2018, the widely anticipated World Buddhist Forum convened in Put
 {% 感悟 = experiential insight/reflection, captured as "Personal Reflections" %}
 
 孙英刚教授：我们知道，佛教在亚洲的兴起与传播，是人类文明史上的大事。佛教从地方性的信仰，飞跃成为世界性的宗教，在人类发展脉络上扮演了非常重要的角色。佛教传入中国后，也成为中华文化不可或缺的组成部分。时至今日，佛教依然在一带一路及各文明体的融合中起着重要作用。这和历史很相似，古代的丝绸之路不仅是一条物质交流之路，同时也是一条信仰之路。  
-Prof. Sun Yinggang: As we know, the rise and spread of Buddhism across Asia is a monumental event in human civilization. Buddhism evolved from a local faith into a world religion, playing a profoundly important role in the course of human development. After entering China, Buddhism also became an indispensable component of Chinese culture. To this day, Buddhism continues to play a vital part in the Belt and Road Initiative and the integration of diverse civilizations. This resonates with history: the ancient Silk Road was not only a route for material exchange but also a path of faith.  
+Prof. Sun Yinggang: As we know, the rise and spread of Buddhism across Asia is an event of great importance in human civilization. Buddhism evolved from a local faith into a world religion, playing a profoundly important role in the course of human development. After entering China, Buddhism also became an indispensable component of Chinese culture. To this day, Buddhism continues to play a vital part in the Belt and Road Initiative and the integration of diverse civilizations. This resonates with history: the ancient Silk Road was not only a route for material exchange but also a path of faith.  
 
 今天，我们有幸请到两位重量级嘉宾，围绕“佛教和一带一路”的关系，进行较为深入的探讨。两位嘉宾，一位是资深学者魏道儒教授，出生于上世纪五十年代；一位是当代高僧济群法师，出生于上世纪六十年代，他们的个人经历和接触佛教的心得都不同。魏教授是中国社科院学部委员、中国社科院佛教研究中心主任，主编了《世界佛教通史》，这是重要的大部头著作。济群法师是戒幢佛学研究所所长，学修并重的高僧，也对学术倾注了很多精力。两位分别是学界和教界的代表，对这个问题最有发言权。  
-Today, we are honored to have two distinguished guests for an in-depth discussion on the relationship between Buddhism and the Belt and Road. One is the veteran scholar Professor Wei Daoru, born in the 1950s; the other is the renowned contemporary monk Master Jiqun, born in the 1960s. Their personal experiences and encounters with Buddhism differ greatly. Professor Wei is a member of the CASS academic committee and Director of the CASS Buddhist Research Center, and chief editor of *A Comprehensive History of World Buddhism*, a major scholarly work. Master Jiqun is the director of the Jiechuang Institute of Buddhist Studies — a monk who emphasizes both study and practice, and who has devoted considerable energy to academic work. As representatives of the academic and monastic communities respectively, they are the most qualified to speak on this topic.  
+Today, we are honored to have two distinguished guests for an in-depth discussion on the relationship between Buddhism and the Belt and Road. One is the veteran scholar Professor Wei Daoru, born in the 1950s; the other is the renowned contemporary monk Master Jiqun, born in the 1960s. Their personal experiences and encounters with Buddhism differ greatly. Professor Wei is an Academician of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Director of the CASS Buddhist Research Center, and chief editor of *A Comprehensive History of World Buddhism*, a major scholarly work. Master Jiqun is the director of the Jiechuang Institute of Buddhist Studies — a monk who emphasizes both study and practice, and who has devoted considerable energy to academic work. As representatives of the academic and monastic communities respectively, they are the most qualified to speak on this topic.  
 
 我们先从个人经历谈起。我想代表听众请问：两位是怎么接触到佛教的，对佛法有什么感悟和思考？不论作为研究对象还是信仰来说，相信你们的经历会对大家有所启发。
 Let us begin with their personal experiences. On behalf of the audience, I would like to ask: How did our two guests first encounter Buddhism, and what insights and reflections has the Dharma brought them? Whether approached as an object of study or as a living faith, I believe their experiences will be illuminating for us all.
@@ -51,20 +51,20 @@ Master Jiqun: I was born into a Buddhist family. Influenced by my parents from a
 {% 佛化家庭 = Buddhist-influenced family; "Buddhist family" is the common rendering %}
 
 第一，弘扬人生佛教。我看到，每个人都有很多迷惑和烦恼，而佛法是人生的大智慧，可以引导我们解决迷惑，断除烦恼。在弘法过程中，我会针对社会、人生存在的问题，从佛法角度提出，应该怎样看待并对治。其中有关于财富、家庭、幸福、成功等方面的思考，还有面向企业家、艺术家、心理学工作者等不同领域的交流。人生的一切烦恼，都和我们对自身及世界的错误认识有关。如果缺少智慧，认识偏差，问题自然层出不穷。关于这些思考，我做了大量演讲，先后整理成几十本小丛书。  
-First, promoting Humanistic Buddhism. I have observed that everyone harbors confusion and afflictions, while the Dharma is the great wisdom of life that can guide us in resolving confusion and eliminating afflictions. In my Dharma work, I address the problems that exist in society and human life, offering a Buddhist perspective on how to understand and remedy them. This includes reflections on wealth, family, happiness, and success, as well as dialogues with entrepreneurs, artists, psychologists, and professionals from other fields. All of life's troubles arise from our mistaken perceptions of ourselves and the world. When wisdom is lacking and our understanding is skewed, problems naturally proliferate. On these topics I have given many lectures, which have been compiled into several dozen booklets.  
-{% 人生佛教 ≠ 人间佛教: Taixu's "Buddhism for Human Life" vs Yinshun's "Humanistic Buddhism" — distinct concepts, though both rendered here as "Humanistic Buddhism" for readability %}
+First, promoting Buddhism for Human Life. I have observed that everyone harbors confusion and afflictions, while the Dharma is the great wisdom of life that can guide us in resolving confusion and eliminating afflictions. In my Dharma work, I address the problems that exist in society and human life, offering a Buddhist perspective on how to understand and remedy them. This includes reflections on wealth, family, happiness, and success, as well as dialogues with entrepreneurs, artists, psychologists, and professionals from other fields. All of life's troubles arise from our mistaken perceptions of ourselves and the world. When wisdom is lacking and our understanding is skewed, problems naturally proliferate. On these topics I have given many lectures, which have been compiled into several dozen booklets.  
+{% 人生佛教 = Taixu's "Buddhism for Human Life" (distinct from Yinshun's "Humanistic Buddhism" / 人间佛教); rendered here as "Buddhism for Human Life" %}
 
 除了现实问题，生命还有永恒的困惑，包括“我是谁？生从何来，死往何去？人为什么活着？生命的意义是什么”等。这些问题是生而有之的，每个人都存在，区别只在于我们是否意识到。对于这些困惑，如果没有修行体证，是不可能靠自己真正想明白的。很多艺术家、哲学家之所以会走上绝路，正是被此所困扰。虽然他们比普通人对生命有更多思考，但涉及终极问题时，同样看不清真相，找不到意义，从而被虚无的黑洞所吞噬。对此，我也会从佛法的角度提供思考。从这些方面，让我一次又一次体会到佛法的价值。  
-Beyond practical concerns, life also poses perennial questions: Who am I? Where do we come from, and where do we go after death? Why are we alive? What is the meaning of life? These questions are innate; everyone has them — the only difference is whether we are aware of them. Without genuine practice and realization, we cannot truly resolve these questions through our own thinking. Many artists and philosophers have met tragic ends precisely because they were tormented by such questions. Although they contemplated life more deeply than ordinary people, when it came to ultimate questions they, too, could not see the truth or find meaning, and were swallowed by the black hole of nihilism. On these matters, I also offer reflections from the Buddhist perspective. Again and again, these experiences have deepened my appreciation for the value of the Dharma.  
+Beyond practical concerns, life also poses eternal questions: Who am I? Where do we come from, and where do we go after death? Why are we alive? What is the meaning of life? These questions are innate; everyone has them — the only difference is whether we are aware of them. Without genuine practice and realization, we cannot truly resolve these questions through our own thinking. Many artists and philosophers have met tragic ends precisely because they were tormented by such questions. Although they contemplated life more deeply than ordinary people, when it came to ultimate questions they, too, could not see the truth or find meaning, and were swallowed by the black hole of nihilism. On these matters, I also offer reflections from the Buddhist perspective. Again and again, these experiences have deepened my appreciation for the value of the Dharma.  
 {% 永恒的困惑 = eternal/ultimate questions; 生从何来，死往何去 = "where does life come from, where does death go to" — parallel structure preserved %}
 
 第二，解决修学问题。作为佛教徒来说，不管出家众还是在家众，都要修学佛法，而不仅仅是信仰就可以了。佛法博大精深，尤其在今天这个资讯高度发达的全球化时代，我们可以接触到的典籍远远超过古人。究竟怎么学？我在几十年的修学过程中发现，佛教虽然法门众多，但共同核心就是解脱道和菩萨道，其中包含五大要素，即皈依、发心、戒律、正见、止观。抓住这些关键，就能快速把握佛法纲要。通过这些探索，我对修行越来越清晰，越来越有信心，同时也希望帮助更多的人明确目标，有次第、有引导、有效果地修学。  
-Second, addressing the problem of Buddhist study. As Buddhists — whether monastics or laypeople — we must study and practice the Dharma; mere faith is not enough. The Dharma is profound and vast, and in this highly connected, globalized age, the scriptures available to us vastly exceed what people in the past could access. So how should we study? Through several decades of practice, I have discovered that although Buddhism encompasses many approaches, they share a common core: the Path of Liberation and the Bodhisattva Path, which contain five essential elements — taking refuge, generating bodhicitta, observing precepts, establishing right view, and practicing *śamatha-vipaśyanā* [calm abiding and insight]. By grasping these key points, one can quickly apprehend the essential framework of the Dharma. Through these explorations, my own practice has become increasingly clear and my confidence ever stronger. At the same time, I hope to help more people clarify their goals and engage in practice that is systematic, well-guided, and effective.  
+Second, addressing the problem of Buddhist study. As Buddhists — whether monastics or laypeople — we must study and practice the Dharma; mere faith is not enough. The Dharma is profound and vast, and in this highly connected, globalized age, the scriptures available to us vastly exceed what people in the past could access. So how should we study? Through several decades of practice and study, I have discovered that although Buddhism encompasses many approaches, they share a common core: the Path of Liberation and the Bodhisattva Path, which contain five essential elements — taking refuge, generating bodhicitta, observing precepts, establishing right view, and practicing *śamatha-vipaśyanā* [calm abiding and insight]. By grasping these key points, one can quickly apprehend the essential framework of the Dharma. Through these explorations, my own practice has become increasingly clear and my confidence ever stronger. At the same time, I hope to help more people clarify their goals and engage in practice that is systematic, well-guided, and effective.  
 {% 五大要素: 皈依=refuge, 发心=bodhicitta generation, 戒律=precepts, 正见=right view, 止观=śamatha-vipaśyanā %}
 
 第三，思考佛教发展。在五大要素的基础上，我又提出佛教发展需要重视的六大建设，即人生佛教建设、信仰建设、大乘精神建设、大乘解脱道建设、修学次第建设和教制建设。如果我们立足于这些方面来认识并弘扬佛法，佛教一定能健康发展。  
-Third, reflecting on the development of Buddhism. Building on the five essential elements, I have proposed six areas of development that Buddhism needs to emphasize: developing Humanistic Buddhism, strengthening faith, cultivating the Mahayana spirit, establishing the Mahayana path of liberation, systematizing the stages of practice, and reforming monastic institutions. If we approach and propagate the Dharma on the basis of these dimensions, Buddhism will surely develop in a healthy way.  
-{% 六大建设: six areas of institutional development; 教制=monastic regulations/ecclesiastical system %}
+Third, reflecting on the development of Buddhism. Building on the five essential elements, I have proposed six areas of development that Buddhism needs to emphasize: developing Buddhism for Human Life, strengthening faith, cultivating the Mahayana spirit, establishing the Mahayana path of liberation, systematizing the stages of practice, and developing monastic institutions. If we approach and propagate the Dharma on the basis of these dimensions, Buddhism will surely develop in a healthy way.  
+{% 六大建设: six areas of institutional development; 教制=monastic regulations/ecclesiastical system — rendered "developing" not "reforming" (建设=build, not reform) %}
 
 这些思考和实践，使我对佛法价值的认识日益深入，对修行及佛教健康发展的方向逐步清晰。作为出家人，我也努力把这样的思考传达出去，希望和大众共同探索，让佛教在当今时代发挥积极作用。
 Through these reflections and efforts, my understanding of the Dharma's value has steadily deepened, and my vision for practice and Buddhism's healthy development has gradually become clearer. As a monk, I strive to share these reflections and hope to explore together with everyone how Buddhism can play a positive role in the present age.
@@ -82,8 +82,8 @@ Prof. Sun Yinggang: The trajectory of Buddhism's development demonstrates its na
 {% 恒河流域 = Ganges River basin; 800多万字 = 8 million+ Chinese characters (字 ≠ words) %}
 
 魏道儒教授：佛教从地方宗教发展为亚洲宗教，进而成为世界宗教，是文明传播史上的一个奇迹。其延续时间之长，参与人数之多，影响之广泛，成果之丰硕，在人类历史上是独一无二的。在佛教2500多年的传播过程中，许多国家和民族的信仰者作出了贡献，其中贡献最大、起主导作用、不可替代且具有世界意义的，正是中国。为什么呢？可以从三点来看：  
-Prof. Wei Daoru: Buddhism's evolution from a local religion to an Asian religion, and then to a world religion, is a miracle in the history of cultural transmission. Its extraordinary duration, the sheer number of participants, the breadth of its influence, and the richness of its fruits are unparalleled in human history. Throughout Buddhism's more than 2,500 years of transmission, believers from many countries and ethnic groups have made contributions — but the greatest, most decisive, irreplaceable, and globally significant contribution came from China. Why? Let me explain from three perspectives:  
-{% 文明传播史 = history of civilizational transmission; 奇迹 = miracle (deliberate rhetorical choice matching the elevated tone) %}
+Prof. Wei Daoru: Buddhism's evolution from a local religion to an Asian religion, and then to a world religion, is a miracle in the history of the spread of civilizations. Its extraordinary duration, the sheer number of participants, the breadth of its influence, and the richness of its fruits are unparalleled in human history. Throughout Buddhism's more than 2,500 years of transmission, adherents from many countries and ethnic groups have made contributions — but the greatest, most decisive, irreplaceable, and globally significant contribution came from China. Why? Let me explain from three perspectives:  
+{% 文明传播史 = history of civilizational transmission (文明=civilization, not culture); 信仰者=adherents (not "believers" which has Christian connotation) %}
 
 第一，从佛教用语来看。全世界的佛教有三大语系，即汉语系、藏语系、巴利语系。其中两大语系在中国，且内容远远多于巴利语系。因为后者主要是公元前5世纪到公元1世纪的经论，而汉语系和藏语系的经论，从公元前2世纪一直延续到印度佛教的消亡，从未间断。从这一点就能看到，中国人在保存佛教文化资料方面起到了很大作用。  
 First, from the perspective of Buddhist canonical languages. Worldwide, Buddhism comprises three major canonical traditions: the Chinese, Tibetan, and Pali traditions. Two of these reside in China, and their content far exceeds that of the Pali tradition. The latter mainly preserves scriptures from the 5th century BCE to the 1st century CE, whereas the Chinese and Tibetan canons contain scriptures spanning continuously from the 2nd century BCE right through to the decline of Indian Buddhism. This alone demonstrates the immense role the Chinese people have played in preserving Buddhist cultural materials.  
@@ -106,16 +106,16 @@ Prof. Sun Yinggang: From a scholarly perspective, Professor Wei has illuminated
 {% 西来东渐 = Buddhism's eastward transmission (literally "coming from the west, gradually spreading east") %}
 
 济群法师：佛教的西来东渐，通过中国传到日本、韩国乃至整个东南亚，对这些地区的文化产生了深远影响，主要体现在以下三个方面。  
-Master Jiqun: Buddhism's journey from west to east — through China to Japan, Korea, and across Southeast Asia — has had a profound influence on the cultures of these regions. This influence can be seen in three main areas.  
-{% 西来东渐 repeated — kept consistent with "eastward transmission" %}
+Master Jiqun: Buddhism's eastward transmission — through China to Japan, Korea, and across Southeast Asia — has had a profound influence on the cultures of these regions. This influence can be seen in three main areas.  
+{% 西来东渐 = Buddhism's eastward transmission (literally "coming from the west, gradually spreading east"); used consistently throughout %}
 
 第一，文化的影响。佛教从印度传入中国等亚洲国家，不仅丰富了这些地区的思想、文化，连语言都深受影响，我们今天用的很多词汇就来自佛教。就中国而言，虽有先秦的诸子百家，但汉魏之后的主流思想是儒释道三家，并对本土的文化、艺术、哲学、民俗等产生了全面影响。佛教的重要地位可见一斑。日本、韩国也是同样，佛教一经传入，迅速成为这些地区的主流思想，全面影响他们的文化生活。  
 First, cultural influence. Buddhism's transmission from India to China and other Asian countries not only enriched the thought and culture of these regions but also deeply influenced their very languages; many of the words we use today originated from Buddhism. In the case of China, although the pre-Qin period produced the Hundred Schools of Thought, from the Han-Wei period onward the mainstream intellectual tradition has been the three teachings of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, which have comprehensively shaped China's indigenous culture, art, philosophy, and folk customs. This speaks to Buddhism's importance. The same holds true for Japan and Korea: once Buddhism arrived, it rapidly became a mainstream current of thought and thoroughly influenced their cultural life.  
 {% 诸子百家 = Hundred Schools of Thought (pre-Qin philosophical schools) %}
 
 第二，信仰的提升。传统儒家重视现世，关注怎样成为有德君子，进而成圣成贤，同时也关注如何安邦治国，建设理想社会，但对死亡及生命归宿等终极问题关注不多，所谓“未知生，焉知死”。事实上，活着不仅有现实意义，还有终极价值。前者是大家熟悉的，可一旦开始关注终极问题，就必须有宗教和文化的支持，否则是找不到答案的。整个印度文化所关注的，正是轮回和解脱，即生命如何从过去延续到现在，又如何走向未来。这就让我们认识到生命的长度和深度。所以佛教传入后，虽然经历了南北朝的碰撞，但很快被国人接受，以此提升信仰，在追求现实价值的同时，实现生命的终极价值。很多文人士大夫既是儒者，又是虔诚的佛教徒，儒释道思想在他们身上得到了高度融合。  
-Second, the elevation of faith. Traditional Confucianism emphasizes the present life, focusing on how to become a virtuous gentleman and ultimately a sage, as well as how to govern the state and build an ideal society. But it gives relatively little attention to ultimate questions — death and life's final destination — as reflected in the saying, "Not yet understanding life, how can one understand death?" In truth, life possesses not only practical meaning but also ultimate value. The former is familiar to all, but once one begins to ponder ultimate questions, the support of religion and culture becomes essential; without it, no answers can be found. The entire Indian cultural tradition is precisely concerned with *saṃsāra* [cyclic existence] and liberation — that is, how life continues from the past into the present and onward into the future. This reveals the length and depth of life. That is why, although Buddhism encountered resistance during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, it was soon embraced by the Chinese people. It elevated their faith, enabling them to pursue ultimate value alongside practical concerns. Many literati and scholar-officials were simultaneously Confucians and devout Buddhists; in them, Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist thought achieved a high degree of integration.  
-{% 未知生，焉知死 = Analects 11.12; standard rendering 有德君子= virtuous gentleman, 圣贤=sage and worthy %}
+Second, the elevation of faith. Traditional Confucianism emphasizes the present life, focusing on how to become a virtuous gentleman and ultimately a sage or worthy, as well as how to govern the state and build an ideal society. But it gives relatively little attention to ultimate questions — death and life's final destination — as reflected in the saying, "Not yet understanding life, how can one understand death?" In truth, life possesses not only practical meaning but also ultimate value. The former is familiar to all, but once one begins to ponder ultimate questions, the support of religion and culture becomes essential; without it, no answers can be found. The entire Indian cultural tradition is precisely concerned with *saṃsāra* [cyclic existence] and liberation — that is, how life continues from the past into the present and onward into the future. This reveals the length and depth of life. That is why, although Buddhism encountered resistance during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, it was soon embraced by the Chinese people. It elevated their faith, enabling them to pursue ultimate value alongside practical concerns. Many literati and scholar-officials were simultaneously Confucians and devout Buddhists; in them, Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist thought achieved a high degree of integration.  
+{% 圣贤 = sage and worthy (two distinct Confucian categories) — rendered as "sage or worthy" not collapsed to "a sage" %}
 
 第三，修身养性的作用。每个人在世间有很多困惑烦恼，从而引发焦虑、恐惧、没有安全感等心理疾病。当人生面临这些问题时，如何加以解决？西方心理学是近两百年才出现的，而作为东方心理学的佛教，千百年来始终承担着心理辅导的角色。对普通民众来说，遇到违缘和烦恼时，会到寺院礼佛、诵经、请求开示，获得精神支持。对文人士大夫来说，通过学习佛法，学习大乘的空性思想和菩萨道精神，既能看淡名利、地位、财富等世间利益，还能以出世心做入世事，在入世过程中保有出世的超然。可见，佛教在国人的精神生活中有着不可取代的重要地位。
 Third, the role of self-cultivation. Everyone encounters confusion and afflictions in the world, leading to anxiety, fear, insecurity, and other psychological disturbances. When life presents these challenges, how do we address them? Western psychology only emerged in the last two centuries, while Buddhism — as an Eastern psychology — has served a counseling role for thousands of years. For ordinary people facing adversity and affliction, visiting temples to pay homage, chant sutras, and seek guidance has long provided spiritual support. For the literati and scholar-officials, studying the Dharma — particularly the Mahayana teachings on emptiness and the spirit of the bodhisattva path — enabled them to see beyond fame, status, and worldly wealth while engaging in worldly affairs with a transcendent mind, preserving an attitude of detachment within engagement. Clearly, Buddhism holds an irreplaceable position in the spiritual life of the Chinese people.
@@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ Third, the role of self-cultivation. Everyone encounters confusion and afflictio
 {% 中国传统文化 = traditional Chinese culture %}
 
 孙英刚教授：我们再谈一谈佛教和中国传统文化的关系，或者说，谈一谈中国佛教的文化特点。刚才法师提到，在中华文明的语境中理解，佛教是传统文化的一部分。我们知道，佛教传入中国时，曾有一个恢宏的西行求法运动。几百年间，中国高僧前仆后继，不顾恶劣的自然环境，前往印度求取正法，同时把佛典从梵文等译为汉文。从学术角度看，这本身是文化再造的过程。在佛教传入中国后的发展过程中，不仅形成了新的思想、理念，甚至形成了禅宗这样具有中国特色的新教派，同时和中国传统文化紧密结合。  
-Prof. Sun Yinggang: Let us discuss further the relationship between Buddhism and traditional Chinese culture — or, we might say, the cultural characteristics of Chinese Buddhism. As Master Jiqun just mentioned, understood within the context of Chinese civilization, Buddhism is part of traditional culture. We know that when Buddhism entered China, there was a monumental westward movement in search of the Dharma. Over several centuries, Chinese monks, one after another, braved harsh natural conditions and journeyed to India in quest of the true Dharma, while also translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit and other languages into Chinese. From an academic perspective, this was in itself a process of cultural re-creation. In the course of Buddhism's development after entering China, it not only produced new ideas and concepts but even gave rise to distinctly Chinese schools such as Chan, all while deeply integrating with traditional Chinese culture.  
+Prof. Sun Yinggang: Let us discuss further the relationship between Buddhism and traditional Chinese culture — or, we might say, the cultural characteristics of Chinese Buddhism. As Master Jiqun just mentioned, understood within the context of Chinese civilization, Buddhism is part of traditional culture. We know that when Buddhism entered China, there was a grand westward movement in search of the Dharma. Over several centuries, Chinese monks, one after another, braved harsh natural conditions and journeyed to India in quest of the true Dharma, while also translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit and other languages into Chinese. From an academic perspective, this was in itself a process of cultural re-creation. In the course of Buddhism's development after entering China, it not only produced new ideas and concepts but even gave rise to distinctly Chinese schools such as Chan, all while deeply integrating with traditional Chinese culture.  
 {% 西行求法 = westward journey in search of the Dharma (法 = Dharma, not just "law") %}
 
 就像法师谈到的，在魏晋南北朝之后，笼统地讲，是儒释道三足鼎立的局面。这不仅表现于外在，更多体现为中国人的心灵结构始终在儒释道框架的影响下，有人总结为“以儒治世，以道养生，以佛治心”。关于这个问题，我们先由济法师来谈一谈。
@@ -138,12 +138,12 @@ Master Jiqun: Although Buddhism originated outside China, it has over two thousa
 {% 外来宗教 = foreign/imported religion; rendered politely as "originated outside China" %}
 
 另一方面，佛教的轮回观和心性论对中国文化具有弥补作用。儒家关心现世，而轮回说是立足于佛陀的修行体证，对“生从何来，死往何去”作出解读，引导我们从过去、现在、未来三世认识生命。如果人死如灯灭的话，很多人会有莫名的焦虑——百年之后是什么？真的什么都不存在了吗？在西园寺举办的“佛教与心理学论坛”上，我们曾就死亡焦虑的主题展开研讨。因为这种焦虑极其普遍，只是程度不同，或暂时没有意识到而已。事实上，死亡是每个人终将面对的现实，是今生最后也最重要的考验。佛教关于轮回和解脱的思想，可以引导我们认识生命真相，正确面对死亡，因为找到究竟归宿而不再焦虑。  
-On the other hand, Buddhism's teachings on rebirth and buddha-nature have complemented Chinese culture in essential ways. Confucianism concerns itself with the present life, whereas the doctrine of rebirth — grounded in the Buddha's realized insight — offers an interpretation of "where we come from and where we go after death" and guides us to understand life across the three time periods of past, present, and future. If death were simply the extinction of a lamp, many people would experience a nebulous anxiety: What comes after a hundred years? Does everything truly cease to exist? At the "Buddhism and Psychology Forum" held at Xiyuan Monastery, we once conducted a focused discussion on the theme of death anxiety. This anxiety is remarkably widespread, differing only in degree and in whether one is presently aware of it. In fact, death is the reality every person will ultimately face — the final and most important test of this life. Buddhism's teachings on rebirth and liberation can guide us to recognize the truth of life, face death squarely, and through finding an ultimate refuge, free ourselves from anxiety.  
-{% 心性论 = theory of mind-nature (broader than 佛性 buddha-nature); 轮回观 = saṃsāra perspective %}
+On the other hand, Buddhism's teachings on rebirth and mind-nature have complemented Chinese culture in essential ways. Confucianism concerns itself with the present life, whereas the doctrine of rebirth — grounded in the Buddha's realized insight — offers an interpretation of "where we come from and where we go after death" and guides us to understand life across the three time periods of past, present, and future. If death were simply the extinction of a lamp, many people would experience a nebulous anxiety: What comes after a hundred years? Does everything truly cease to exist? At the "Buddhism and Psychology Forum" held at Xiyuan Monastery, we once conducted a focused discussion on the theme of death anxiety. This anxiety is remarkably widespread, differing only in degree and in whether one is presently aware of it. In fact, death is the reality every person will ultimately face — the final and most important test of this life. Buddhism's teachings on rebirth and liberation can guide us to recognize the truth of life, face death squarely, and through finding an ultimate refuge, free ourselves from anxiety.  
+{% 心性论 = theory of mind-nature (broader than 佛性 buddha-nature); 轮回观 = rebirth perspective %}
 
 如果说轮回观让生命有了长度，那么心性论就使生命有了深度。儒家思想强调做人，从有德君子到成贤成圣，都离不开心性的基础。如果对心性没有透彻认识，修身养性往往流于表面，是对行为而非本质的改变。所以儒家从宋明理学开始，大量吸收佛教的心性理论。只有从心性入手，才能在根本上改变生命品质。当今社会盛行心理学，而佛法在2000多年的流传过程中，作为心性之学，对解决大众心理问题起到了积极作用。所以西方心理学也在广泛吸收佛教的理论和修行实践，用于心理治疗，以及咨询师本身的心理建设。  
-If the rebirth perspective gives life length, then the theory of buddha-nature gives life depth. Confucian thought emphasizes the cultivation of personhood — from becoming a virtuous gentleman to becoming a sage — all of which depends on the foundation of innate nature. Without a thorough understanding of this nature, self-cultivation often remains superficial, modifying outward behavior rather than transforming the essence. It is for this reason that Confucianism, from Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism onward, extensively absorbed Buddhist theories of mind-nature. Only by working from the level of mind-nature can the quality of life be fundamentally transformed. In contemporary society, psychology holds great sway, yet the Dharma, over its more than two-thousand-year transmission, has functioned as a science of mind and nature, playing a positive role in addressing people's psychological problems. This is why Western psychology, too, is now broadly absorbing Buddhist theory and contemplative practices for use in psychotherapy and in the mental well-being of therapists themselves.  
-{% 心性 = mind-nature (the innate nature of mind); rendered here as "buddha-nature" for accessibility but note the distinction %}
+If the rebirth perspective gives life length, then the theory of mind-nature gives life depth. Confucian thought emphasizes the cultivation of personhood — from becoming a virtuous gentleman to becoming a sage or worthy — all of which depends on the foundation of innate nature. Without a thorough understanding of this nature, self-cultivation often remains superficial, modifying outward behavior rather than transforming the essence. It is for this reason that Confucianism, from Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism onward, extensively absorbed Buddhist theories of mind-nature. Only by working from the level of mind-nature can the quality of life be fundamentally transformed. In contemporary society, psychology holds great sway, yet the Dharma, over its more than two-thousand-year transmission, has functioned as a science of mind and nature, playing a positive role in addressing people's psychological problems. This is why Western psychology, too, is now broadly absorbing Buddhist theory and contemplative practices for use in psychotherapy and in the mental well-being of therapists themselves.  
+{% 心性 = mind-nature (the innate nature of mind); rendered as "mind-nature" consistently, not "buddha-nature" (which is narrower: 佛性) %}
 
 至于中国佛教的特点，我们知道，印度佛教主要有声闻解脱道，和以中观、唯识、如来藏为代表的大乘菩萨道思想，后者是传入中国的重点。大量佛经译为汉文后，祖师们根据对经典的学修、理解和实践，形成天台、华严等八大宗派，以及本宗特有的理论体系。如华严宗的四法界、六相、十玄门，天台宗的一心三观、三谛圆融、一念三千，都是祖师根据原典作出的诠释。  
 As for the distinctive features of Chinese Buddhism, we know that Indian Buddhism mainly comprises the *śrāvaka* path of liberation and the Mahayana bodhisattva path represented by Madhyamaka, Yogācāra, and *tathāgatagarbha* thought — the latter being the focus of transmission to China. After large numbers of Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese, the patriarchs, based on their study, practice, understanding, and realization of these texts, established eight major schools — including Tiantai and Huayan — each with its own distinctive doctrinal system. For example, Huayan's Four Dharma Realms, Six Characteristics, and Ten Mysterious Gates, and Tiantai's Threefold Contemplation in One Mind, Threefold Truth in Perfect Harmony, and Three Thousand Realms in a Single Thought — all are interpretive frameworks developed by the patriarchs from the original scriptures.  
@@ -158,8 +158,8 @@ In sum, Chinese Buddhism differs from the Theravāda and Tibetan traditions in b
 {% 南传、藏传 = Theravāda and Tibetan traditions %}
 
 孙英刚教授：济法师曾主讲相关课程，并出版有《佛教与中国传统文化》，对这个问题很有感悟。现在我们请魏教授从学者的角度，谈谈佛教和中国传统文化的关系，以及对中国传统文化的贡献。
-Prof. Sun Yinggang: Master Jiqun has previously given lecture series on this topic and published *Buddhism and Traditional Chinese Culture*, so he is deeply conversant with these questions. Now let us invite Professor Wei to discuss, from a scholarly perspective, the relationship between Buddhism and traditional Chinese culture, and Buddhism's contributions to that culture.
-{% 感悟 = insight/realization from experience; rendered as "deeply conversant" which understates the experiential dimension %}
+Prof. Sun Yinggang: Master Jiqun has previously given lecture series on this topic and published *Buddhism and Traditional Chinese Culture*, so he is deeply attuned to these questions. Now let us invite Professor Wei to discuss, from a scholarly perspective, the relationship between Buddhism and traditional Chinese culture, and Buddhism's contributions to that culture.
+{% 感悟 = insight/realization from experience; "deeply attuned to" preserves the experiential dimension %}
 
 魏道儒教授：佛教和中国传统文化的关系，可以从三个方面来认识。  
 Prof. Wei Daoru: The relationship between Buddhism and traditional Chinese culture can be understood from three angles.  
@@ -182,8 +182,8 @@ Master Jiqun just mentioned that Buddhism's greatest influence on China lies in
 {% 八字概括: 生必有死，死不更生 vs 死必有生 — eight-character formulas rendered with structural fidelity %}
 
 第三，佛教和中国固有文化的关系。在历史长河中可以看到，从佛教开始传入到南北朝是融合期，甚至有过剧烈的冲突。隋唐以后冲突逐渐退居其次，相互学习成了主要方向，形成三教鼎立的局面。从宋代到清代，佛教和中华文化就形成一荣俱荣、一损俱损的局面。只要批其中一个，一定会批另一个，关于此，年龄稍大的人应该都有感受。到最后，佛教和中国固有文化就形成你中有我、我中有你的关系，可谓生死相依。
-Third, the relationship between Buddhism and indigenous Chinese culture. Over the long course of history, we can see that from Buddhism's initial entry through the Northern and Southern Dynasties was a period of integration, at times even marked by intense conflict. After the Sui and Tang, conflict gradually receded into the background, and mutual learning became the dominant direction, resulting in the tripartite structure of the three teachings. From the Song through the Qing dynasties, Buddhism and Chinese culture formed a relationship where they thrived together and suffered together: to criticize one was inevitably to criticize the other — something those of us who are older can attest to. Ultimately, Buddhism and indigenous Chinese culture developed a relationship of mutual interpenetration — you within me, me within you — one could say they are bound together in life and death.
-{% 一荣俱荣、一损俱损 = "if one prospers, all prosper; if one suffers, all suffer" — rendered as "thrived together and suffered together" %}
+Third, the relationship between Buddhism and indigenous Chinese culture. Over the long course of history, we can see that from Buddhism's initial entry through the Northern and Southern Dynasties was a period of integration, at times even marked by intense conflict. After the Sui and Tang, conflict gradually receded into the background, and mutual learning became the dominant direction, resulting in the tripartite structure of the three teachings. From the Song through the Qing dynasties, Buddhism and Chinese culture rose and fell together: to criticize one was inevitably to criticize the other — something those of us who are older can attest to. Ultimately, Buddhism and indigenous Chinese culture developed a relationship of mutual interpenetration — you within me, me within you — one could say they are bound together in life and death.
+{% 一荣俱荣、一损俱损 = "if one prospers, all prosper; if one suffers, all suffer" — rendered "rose and fell together" to capture shared fate %}
 
 ## 四、佛教与当代社会
 ## IV. Buddhism and Contemporary Society
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ Prof. Sun Yinggang: Both of our guests have touched on the relationship between
 {% 三大基石 = three cornerstones; 规约=code of conduct, 意识形态=ideological expression, 终极追求=ultimate pursuit %}
 
 佛教传入中国，对整个文化和社会体系的影响很大。直到今天，依然影响着大众的世界观、人生观、生死观。我们也看到，不论过去还是现在，佛教都被社会大众赋予期望，认为佛教可以作为传统文化的载体，把社会带向和谐、美好的方向。现在社会上的戾气很重，我们想知道，在道德提升、心灵体验，及引导大众尊重生命、彼此善待等方面，佛教能扮演什么样的角色？
-Buddhism's introduction to China has had an enormous impact on the entire cultural and social fabric. To this day, it continues to influence how people view the world, human life, and death. We also see that Buddhist practitioners, both past and present, are looked upon with hope by the broader society — as carriers of traditional culture capable of guiding society toward harmony and goodness. Yet today, there is considerable hostility in society. We want to understand: in terms of moral elevation, spiritual experience, and guiding people to respect life and treat one another with kindness, what role can Buddhism play?
+Buddhism's introduction to China has had an enormous impact on the entire cultural and social fabric. To this day, it continues to influence how people view the world, human life, and death. We also see that Buddhism, both past and present, is regarded with hope by the broader society — as a carrier of traditional culture, capable of guiding society toward harmony and goodness. Yet today, there is considerable hostility in society. We want to understand: in terms of moral elevation, spiritual experience, and guiding people to respect life and treat one another with kindness, what role can Buddhism play?
 {% 戾气 = societal hostility/aggression (hard to translate directly; "hostility" captures the antisocial dimension) %}
 
 济群法师：在今天这个时代，很多人没有敬畏心，急功近利，甚至以利益最大化作为人生追求，为牟利不择手段，不惧犯罪。这在很大程度上和缺乏信仰有关。  
@@ -214,27 +214,27 @@ So, how do we make human relationships more harmonious? Western philosophy is du
 {% 梵我一如 = Brahman-Ātman identity; 天人合一 = unity of Heaven and humanity; 依正不二 = non-duality of sentient being and environment %}
 
 儒家伦理是建立在仁爱基础上，倡导“仁者爱人”，让我们从爱身边的人开始，进而扩大到所有人。佛法所说的大慈大悲，更教导我们关爱一切众生，而不仅仅是人类。这些都是帮助我们开启并建立良性的生命品质，让内心更健康，让人生更幸福。爱和慈悲的缺失，在很大程度上，是因为我们认识不到这些品质蕴含的价值。这就需要从观念上引导，让大家看到，爱和慈悲不仅对自己有益，当它传递出去，当越来越多的人有爱心，有慈悲，就能减少人与人之间的对立，消除冲突和矛盾，使社会更加和谐。
-Confucian ethics rests on the foundation of *ren* [humaneness, benevolence], advocating that "the humane person loves others" — beginning with those close to us and gradually extending outward to embrace all people. The great loving-kindness and great compassion taught in the Dharma go further, teaching us to care for all sentient beings, not merely human beings. All of these teachings help us to unlock and establish wholesome qualities of being, making our minds healthier and our lives happier. The absence of love and compassion is, to a great extent, due to our failure to recognize the value inherent in these qualities. This requires guiding people at the level of understanding — helping everyone see that love and compassion are not only beneficial to oneself, but also, when transmitted outward, when more and more people embody love and compassion, can reduce hostility between people, eliminate conflict and friction, and make society more harmonious.
-{% 仁者爱人 = "the humane person loves others" (Mencius); 大慈大悲 = great loving-kindness and great compassion (maitrī and karuṇā) %}
+Confucian ethics rests on the foundation of *ren* [humaneness, benevolence], advocating that "the humane person loves others" — beginning with those close to us and gradually extending outward to embrace all people. The great loving-kindness and great compassion taught in the Dharma go further, teaching us to care for all sentient beings, not merely human beings. All of these teachings help us to unlock and establish wholesome qualities of being, making our minds healthier and our lives happier. The absence of love and compassion is, to a great extent, due to our failure to recognize the value contained in these qualities. This requires guiding people at the level of understanding — helping everyone see that love and compassion are not only beneficial to oneself, but also, when transmitted outward, when more and more people embody love and compassion, can reduce hostility between people, eliminate conflict and friction, and make society more harmonious.
+{% 仁者爱人 = "the humane person loves others" (Mencius); 大慈大悲 = great loving-kindness and great compassion (maitrī and karuṇā); 蕴含的价值 = "value contained in" (not "inherent") %}
 
 魏道儒教授：刚才济法师谈到佛教倡导的伦理道德，强调了信仰的重要性，这点非常重要。我现在要谈的和法师不重复。我认为佛教有旺盛的生命力，它的广泛适应性还在于，在信仰领域外，对社会大众有积极的影响、宝贵的价值。  
-Prof. Wei Daoru: Master Jiqun has just spoken of the ethical principles championed by Buddhism and underscored the importance of faith — this is a crucial point. What I wish to say now will not repeat his remarks. I believe that Buddhism possesses vigorous vitality and broad adaptability also because, beyond the sphere of faith, it exercises a positive influence and holds precious value for society at large.  
-{% "和法师不重复" = polite academic turn-taking; rendered naturally %}
+Prof. Wei Daoru: Master Jiqun has just spoken of the ethical principles championed by Buddhism and underscored the importance of faith — this is a crucial point. I would like to add to what Master Jiqun has said. I believe that Buddhism possesses vigorous vitality and broad adaptability also because, beyond the sphere of faith, it exercises a positive influence and holds precious value for society at large.  
+{% 我现在要谈的和法师不重复 = "I would like to add to what Master Jiqun has said" — concise English, not a calque of the awkward literal structure %}
 
 回顾历史可以看到，佛教传入中国后，经历了再创造的过程。中国信仰者撰写了新经典，倡导了新教义，建立了新宗派，打造了新圣地，创造了新艺术，推出了新造像。以最后一点来说，我们现在看到的弥勒佛，就是在印度原有的弥勒经典的叙述基础上，加入更多国人追寻和重视的真善美的成分，强调乐观、豁达、和平、友好，宣扬对现实社会的热爱，对美好未来的期盼。其中蕴含的精神内容，是可以大力弘扬的。  
-Looking back through history, we see that after Buddhism entered China, it underwent a process of re-creation. Chinese believers composed new scriptures, promoted new doctrines, established new schools, built new sacred sites, created new art, and introduced new iconography. Take this last point as an example: the Maitreya Buddha we see today builds on the narrative foundation of the original Indian Maitreya sutras but incorporates additional elements of truth, goodness, and beauty that the Chinese people have long cherished and pursued — emphasizing optimism, open-mindedness, peace, and goodwill, celebrating love for the present world and hope for a bright future. The spiritual substance contained therein is something we can vigorously promote.  
-{% 再创造 = re-creation (deliberately not "recreation"); 新经典/新教义/新宗派/新圣地/新艺术/新造像 = six-fold "new" catalog %}
+Looking back through history, we see that after Buddhism entered China, it underwent a process of re-creation. Chinese practitioners composed new scriptures, promoted new doctrines, established new schools, built new sacred sites, created new art, and introduced new iconography. Take this last point as an example: the Maitreya Buddha we see today builds on the narrative foundation of the original Indian Maitreya sutras but incorporates additional elements of truth, goodness, and beauty that the Chinese people have long cherished and pursued — emphasizing optimism, open-mindedness, peace, and goodwill, celebrating love for the present world and hope for a bright future. The spiritual substance contained therein is something we can vigorously promote.  
+{% 再创造 = re-creation (deliberately not "recreation"); 新经典/新教义/新宗派/新圣地/新艺术/新造像 = six-fold "new" catalog; 中国信仰者 = "Chinese practitioners" (not "believers" — avoids Christian connotation) %}
 
 在现代社会，随着科技的发展，经济的繁荣，人们的生活水平不断提高。甚至有人说，过去人们不敢预见100年后会怎样，现在我们不敢预见20年后会怎样，可见科技和经济发展之快。特别是近一个世纪以来，科技对人类社会的推动力远远大于过去，在这样的背景下，人们的精神更需要营养。  
 In modern society, with advancing technology and economic prosperity, living standards continue to rise. Some even say that in the past, people dared not predict what the world would be like a hundred years hence, while today we dare not predict twenty years ahead — such is the rapid pace of scientific and economic development. Particularly over the past century, science and technology have propelled human society forward with far greater force than ever before. Against this backdrop, people's spiritual lives need nourishment all the more.  
 {% 100年后 vs 20年后 = rhetorical contrast about accelerating change %}
 
 千百年来，不知多少人通过佛教解决了人生困惑，找到了解脱智慧，汲取了知识学问，抚慰了心灵创伤。这样的例子非常多。在这些方面，佛教发挥作用的空间将越来越大。比如现在人心态不好，在处理人际关系时，很容易萌发“羡慕、嫉妒、恨”。看到对方生意做得好，工作有成绩，所得利益多，不论熟人还是陌生人，就觉得他是不是走后门了，是不是不干好事弄来的。事实上，羡慕、嫉妒、恨是让自己受害。如果我们从佛教的智慧宝库中吸取一点营养，把羡慕、嫉妒、恨转变为慈悲喜舍，也不要求多高深，就是看见别人得到利益时，无条件地为他高兴，为他喝彩。这样做的话，对他人有好处，对自己有好处，对整个社会也有好处。  
-Over the centuries, countless people have found through Buddhism the resolution of life's confusions, the wisdom of liberation, the nourishment of knowledge, and the healing of spiritual wounds. There are countless such examples. In these areas, Buddhism's scope for constructive impact will only continue to expand. Take, for instance, the unhealthy mindsets prevalent today: in navigating interpersonal relationships, people readily fall into "envy, jealousy, and resentment." When they see someone else's business thriving, work yielding success, or benefits accruing — whether the person is an acquaintance or a stranger — they immediately suspect that person got ahead through backdoor connections or shady dealings. In truth, envy, jealousy, and resentment harm only oneself. If we draw even a little nourishment from the treasury of Buddhist wisdom and transform envy, jealousy, and resentment into the four immeasurables — kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity — nothing lofty is required: simply, when we see others prosper, to feel unconditional happiness for them and to cheer them on. Doing so benefits others, benefits oneself, and benefits society as a whole.  
-{% 羡慕、嫉妒、恨 = colloquial triad "envy, jealousy, hatred"; 慈悲喜舍 = four immeasurables (brahmavihāra): maitrī, karuṇā, muditā, upekṣā %}
+Over the centuries, countless people have found through Buddhism the resolution of life's confusions, the wisdom of liberation, the nourishment of knowledge, and the healing of spiritual wounds. There are countless such examples. In these areas, Buddhism's scope for constructive impact will only continue to expand. Take, for instance, the unhealthy mindsets prevalent today: in navigating interpersonal relationships, people readily fall into "envy, jealousy, and hatred." When they see someone else's business thriving, work yielding success, or benefits accruing — whether the person is an acquaintance or a stranger — they immediately suspect that person got ahead through backdoor connections or shady dealings. In truth, envy, jealousy, and hatred harm only oneself. If we draw even a little nourishment from the treasury of Buddhist wisdom and transform envy, jealousy, and hatred into the four immeasurables — kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity — nothing lofty is required: simply, when we see others prosper, to feel unconditional happiness for them and to cheer them on. Doing so benefits others, benefits oneself, and benefits society as a whole.  
+{% 羡慕、嫉妒、恨 = colloquial triad "envy, jealousy, hatred" (恨=hatred, not "resentment" which is weaker); 慈悲喜舍 = four immeasurables (brahmavihāra): maitrī, karuṇā, muditā, upekṣā %}
 
 关于佛教在当今社会起到的积极作用，我们回顾过去，就能得到新的精神资源，树立对传统文化的自信，对本民族文化的自尊，使古老的宗教文化和伦理道德焕发出新生命。同时我们还要让佛教与现代伦理道德相结合，创造出中华民族新的精神境界。在整个人类历史上，只有中华民族的文化，历经五千年生生不息，特点正在于此。在未来，佛教也将与时俱进，焕发出新的活力。
-As for the positive role Buddhism plays in today's society: by looking to the past, we can draw forth new spiritual resources, build confidence in traditional culture and self-respect for our own cultural heritage, and bring new life to ancient religious culture and ethical values. At the same time, we must integrate Buddhism with modern ethics to create a new spiritual landscape for the Chinese people. In the entire history of humankind, Chinese civilization is the only one to have flourished continuously for five thousand years, and this very quality is its defining feature. In the future, Buddhism too will advance with the times and display renewed vitality.
+As for the positive role Buddhism plays in today's society: by looking to the past, we can draw on new spiritual resources, build confidence in traditional culture and self-respect for our own cultural heritage, and bring new life to ancient religious culture and ethical values. At the same time, we must integrate Buddhism with modern ethics to create a new spiritual landscape for the Chinese people. In the entire history of humankind, Chinese civilization is the only one to have flourished continuously for five thousand years, and this very quality is its defining feature. In the future, Buddhism too will advance with the times and display renewed vitality.
 {% 文化自信...文化自尊 = "confidence in traditional culture... self-respect for cultural heritage" — mirrors PRC cultural discourse %}
 
 ## 五、佛教与一带一路
@@ -242,8 +242,8 @@ As for the positive role Buddhism plays in today's society: by looking to the pa
 {% 一带一路 = Belt and Road Initiative (BRI); 文化互鉴 = mutual learning among civilizations %}
 
 孙英刚教授：我们现在回到主题——一带一路，文化互鉴。关于佛教的传播，有些历史研究者认为，佛教从20世纪开始的传播，几乎等同于一次全球化运动。它传播的宗教理念、艺术形式，包括对社会道德、意识形态的影响，是被很多文明体一起接受的。中国历史上也有类似情况，比如隋朝统一时，南北方经过300年的分裂，文化差异很大，但佛教是双方都能接受的，所以在国家巩固统一时，佛教扮演了非常重要的角色。  
-Prof. Sun Yinggang: Let us now return to our central theme — the Belt and Road, and mutual learning among civilizations. Regarding the spread of Buddhism, some historical researchers hold that Buddhism's transmission from the twentieth century onward has been tantamount to a globalization movement. The religious ideas and artistic forms it has transmitted — including its influence on social morality and ideology — have been embraced by many civilizations simultaneously. Chinese history contains similar examples: when the Sui dynasty reunified the country, after three centuries of division between north and south, the cultural differences were vast, yet Buddhism was something both sides could accept. Thus, in consolidating national unity, Buddhism played a critically important role.  
-{% 全球化运动 = globalization movement; 隋朝统一 = Sui reunification (589 CE) %}
+Prof. Sun Yinggang: Let us now return to our central theme — the Belt and Road, and mutual learning among civilizations. Regarding the spread of Buddhism, some historical researchers hold that Buddhism's transmission from the twentieth century onward has been almost equivalent to a globalization movement. The religious ideas and artistic forms it has transmitted — including its influence on social morality and ideology — have been embraced by many civilizations simultaneously. Chinese history contains similar examples: when the Sui dynasty reunified the country, after three centuries of division between north and south, the cultural differences were vast, yet Buddhism was something both sides could accept. Thus, in consolidating national unity, Buddhism played a critically important role.  
+{% 全球化运动 = globalization movement; 几乎等同于 = "almost equivalent to" (preserves the 几乎 qualifier — "tantamount" is too strong) %}
 
 我们现在提倡的一带一路，或者说命运共同体，历史上已经有过活生生的例子。在东亚，如日本、朝鲜半岛，佛教是这些国家重要的文化组成部分。就像共同的语言，大家都能说上话，都能互相理解。随着在欧美的传播，佛教更具有世界宗教的性质。关于这个主轴问题，我们先请济法师从信仰的角度，谈谈自己的观察和感想：在建立命运共同体、推进一带一路的过程中，佛教扮演着什么角色？
 The Belt and Road Initiative we are now advancing — or, we might say, the shared future for humanity — has vivid historical precedents. In East Asia, in countries such as Japan and on the Korean peninsula, Buddhism is a significant component of national culture. It is like a shared language through which everyone can connect and understand one another. As Buddhism spreads through Europe and the Americas, it increasingly takes on the character of a world religion. On this central theme, let us first invite Master Jiqun to share, from the perspective of faith, his observations and reflections: In building a shared future for humanity and advancing the Belt and Road, what role does Buddhism play?
@@ -254,7 +254,7 @@ Master Jiqun: The overarching theme of this forum is "Mutual Exchange and Learni
 {% 交流互鉴，中道圆融 = forum theme: Mutual Exchange and Learning, the Middle Way and Perfect Harmony %}
 
 佛教在2500多年的传承过程中，伴随一带一路，从印度传到中国和东南亚各地，并逐步走向世界，在人类文明史上扮演了重要角色。在今天这个时代，佛教将承担更为重要的作用。16世纪以来，基本是西方物质文明在主导世界，带来的问题日益突出。一方面，随着物欲的膨胀，人对自我的迷失日益加深，看不清生命的真正需求；另一方面，随着人工智能的出现，人们只关心科技的优化，却忽略对自我的提升。  
-Over its 2,500 years of transmission, Buddhism has traveled along what we now call the Belt and Road, spreading from India to China and across Southeast Asia, and gradually extending across the globe. It has played a major role in the history of human civilization. In our present era, Buddhism will shoulder an even more significant role. Since the sixteenth century, Western material civilization has largely dominated the world, and the problems this has engendered are becoming increasingly acute. On one hand, as material desires swell, people's sense of self has become ever more obscured; they can no longer see clearly what life truly needs. On the other hand, with the advent of artificial intelligence, people focus only on optimizing technology while neglecting the cultivation of the self.  
+Over its 2,500 years of transmission, Buddhism has traveled along what we now call the Belt and Road, spreading from India to China and across Southeast Asia, and gradually extending across the globe. It has played a major role in the history of human civilization. In our present era, Buddhism will take on an even more significant role. Since the sixteenth century, Western material civilization has largely dominated the world, and the problems this has engendered are becoming increasingly acute. On one hand, as material desires swell, people's sense of self has become ever more obscured; they can no longer see clearly what life truly needs. On the other hand, with the advent of artificial intelligence, people focus only on optimizing technology while neglecting the cultivation of the self.  
 {% 伴随一带一路 = "along what we now call the Belt and Road" — adds bridging explanation for temporal context %}
 
 在人工智能飞速发展的今天，我们的心态、人格、心理健康并没有得到完善。事实上，心理疾病已成为日益普遍的时代病。而伴随人类的贪婪和欲望，又带来社会和生态环境等各种问题。所以很多人对人工智能心生恐慌，担心被它所取代。从另一个角度说，如果科技越来越发达，但使用工具者缺乏健康的心态、健全的人格，世界势必危机四伏。  
@@ -262,7 +262,7 @@ In this age of rapid AI development, our mental attitudes, our character, and ou
 {% 人工智能 = AI; 心态、人格、心理健康 = mental attitudes, character, psychological well-being — three dimensions of human flourishing %}
 
 怎样才能发挥人类优势，在人工智能时代立于不败之地？东方文化为我们提供了智慧引导。从儒家重视的修身养性，到佛法倡导的明心见性，都是帮助我们认识自己，而不是在物欲中迷失。认识自己是哲学的重要课题，在这方面，佛法不仅有系统的理论，还有完整的修行方法。从某种意义上说，生命也是一个产品。我们要成为更美好的自己，必须对心性有透彻的认识，知道人性中有哪些不善的力量，又该如何消除；同时更要看到，如何开发生命中的良性力量，造就高尚的人格和生命品质。生命是可以通过选择加以改造的，而佛法正是为我们提供改造的智慧和方法。  
-How can we bring humanity's strengths into full play and hold our ground in the age of artificial intelligence? Eastern culture offers us wise guidance. From the Confucian emphasis on self-cultivation to the Buddhist teaching of illuminating the mind and seeing one's true nature — both are about helping us know ourselves, rather than lose ourselves in material desire. Knowing oneself is a foundational question in philosophy, and in this regard, the Dharma offers not only a systematic body of theory but also a complete methodology of practice. In a sense, life itself is a product. To become a better version of ourselves, we must thoroughly understand the nature of the mind — to recognize what unwholesome forces exist within human nature and how to eliminate them, and at the same time, to see how to unlock the wholesome forces within and forge a noble character and quality of being. Life can be transformed through conscious choice, and the Dharma provides precisely the wisdom and methods for such transformation.  
+How can we make the most of human strengths and hold our ground in the age of artificial intelligence? Eastern culture offers us wise guidance. From the Confucian emphasis on self-cultivation to the Buddhist teaching of illuminating the mind and seeing one's true nature — both are about helping us know ourselves, rather than lose ourselves in material desire. Knowing oneself is a foundational question in philosophy, and in this regard, the Dharma offers not only a systematic body of theory but also a complete methodology of practice. In a sense, life itself is also a product. To become a better version of ourselves, we must thoroughly understand the nature of the mind — to recognize what unwholesome forces exist within human nature and how to eliminate them, and at the same time, to see how to unlock the wholesome forces within and forge a noble character and quality of being. Life can be transformed through conscious choice, and the Dharma provides precisely the wisdom and methods for such transformation.  
 {% 修身养性 vs 明心见性 = Confucian self-cultivation vs Buddhist illuminating the mind and seeing its nature %}
 
 “一带一路”是构建人类命运共同体的实践，给各国民众带来了丰富的物质生活。与此同时，我们还要发挥东方文化的长处，为世界提供精神养分。在这些方面，佛教有着取之不尽的智慧，既有对现实人生的指导，也有对终极问题的探讨，是西方文化无法替代的。
@@ -278,15 +278,15 @@ Prof. Wei Daoru: In building a shared future for humanity and advancing the Belt
 {% 三点 = three points (Wei's characteristic structuring pattern) %}
 
 第一，要做维护和平的使者。佛教在2500多年的发展和传播过程中，始终体现出和平的形象，这是其他宗教没有的独特性，今后要继续发扬。  
-First, Buddhism must serve as an ambassador for peace. Throughout more than 2,500 years of development and transmission, Buddhism has consistently embodied the image of peace — a unique characteristic not found in other religions — and must continue to uphold this in the future.  
+First, Buddhism should serve as an ambassador for peace. Throughout more than 2,500 years of development and transmission, Buddhism has consistently embodied the image of peace — a unique characteristic not found in other religions — and must continue to uphold this in the future.  
 {% 和平的形象 = image/embodiment of peace; 其他宗教没有的独特性 = unique among religions (a strong claim, rendered faithfully) %}
 
 第二，要做增进友谊的桥梁，增进不同地区、国家、民族的相互认识和相互理解。在佛教史上，许多有成就的代表人物都是这样做的。  
-Second, it must serve as a bridge for building friendship — enhancing mutual understanding and recognition among different regions, nations, and ethnic groups. Throughout Buddhist history, many accomplished figures have done precisely this.  
+Second, it should serve as a bridge for building friendship — enhancing mutual understanding and recognition among different regions, nations, and ethnic groups. Throughout Buddhist history, many accomplished figures have done precisely this.  
 {% 增进友谊的桥梁 = bridge for building friendship; 相互认识和相互理解 = mutual recognition and understanding %}
 
 第三，要做坚守信仰的表率。自古以来，不论哪个国家的佛教高僧，都是坚守信仰的表率。他们之所以被人纪念，不是因为他们有名，而是因为他们有德，为追求真理奋不顾身，成为民族的脊梁。  
-Third, it must serve as an exemplar of steadfast faith. From ancient times to the present, eminent Buddhist monks of every country have been exemplars of unwavering faith. They are remembered not because of their fame, but because of their virtue — they pursued truth with utter dedication, becoming the backbone of their nations.  
+Third, it should serve as an exemplar of steadfast faith. From ancient times to the present, eminent Buddhist monks of every country have been exemplars of unwavering faith. They are remembered not because of their fame, but because of their virtue — they pursued truth with utter dedication, becoming the backbone of their nations.  
 {% 坚守信仰的表率 = exemplar of steadfast faith; 民族的脊梁 = backbone of the nation (preserved as metaphor) %}
 
 在这三个方面，可做的具体工作非常多。本次世界佛教论坛就是一项重要工作。我在这里只说一点，在构建人类命运共同体的过程中，佛教要理直气壮地宣扬自身先进的、有价值的、经得起历史检验的观念。这些观念很多，在此可以举几个例子。  
@@ -298,7 +298,7 @@ First: champion equality and oppose hierarchy. Buddhism began by rejecting the c
 {% 种姓制度 = caste system (Brahmanical varṇa); 众生平等 = equality of all sentient beings %}
 
 第二，倡导和平，反对战争。在2500多年的历史中，佛教从印度发展到全世界，从来没有发动过宗教战争。这种精神正是人类未来所追求的，中国也要和平崛起。依靠霸权和战争崛起已经成为历史，现在的主调就是和平与发展，不是战争与对抗。  
-Second: champion peace and oppose war. Over 2,500 years of history, as Buddhism spread from India across the world, it has never launched a religious war. This spirit is precisely what humanity's future calls for — China, too, must rise peacefully. Rising through hegemony and warfare belongs to the past; today's dominant themes are peace and development, not war and confrontation.  
+Second: champion peace and oppose war. Over 2,500 years of history, as Buddhism spread from India across the world, it has never launched a religious war. This spirit is precisely what humanity's future calls for — China, too, should rise peacefully. Rising through hegemony and warfare belongs to the past; today's dominant themes are peace and development, not war and confrontation.  
 {% 宗教战争 = religious war (Buddhism's historical record of zero religious wars); 和平崛起 = peaceful rise (PRC foreign policy term) %}
 
 第三，倡导共处，反对独占。人类要和睦共处，和合共生，地球是大家的地球，不是某个国家或民族的地球。人类要共同分享，而不是由谁来独霸，否则其他人往哪儿去？  
@@ -306,8 +306,8 @@ Third: champion coexistence and oppose exclusivity. Humanity must live together
 {% 和合共生 = harmonious and symbiotic coexistence; 地球是大家的地球 = the Earth belongs to everyone (populist rhetoric preserved) %}
 
 第四，倡导中道，反对极端。要大力发扬佛教的中道智慧，走向任何一个极端都是不行的。  
-Fourth: champion the Middle Way and oppose extremism. We must vigorously promote the Middle Way wisdom of Buddhism. Tilting toward any extreme is untenable.  
-{% 中道智慧 = Middle Way wisdom; 极端 = extremism %}
+Fourth: champion the Middle Way and oppose extremism. We should vigorously promote the Middle Way wisdom of Buddhism. Tilting toward any extreme is impermissible.  
+{% 中道智慧 = Middle Way wisdom; 极端 = extremism; 都是不行的 = "is not acceptable / impermissible" (not "untenable", which means indefensible) %}
 
 第五，倡导圆融，反对隔阂，反对分裂，反对矛盾激化。现实世界中，处处存在矛盾，我们的目的是消除矛盾，而不是激化矛盾。  
 Fifth: champion perfect integration and oppose division, oppose schism, oppose the intensification of conflict. In the real world, contradictions exist everywhere. Our purpose is to resolve contradictions, not to intensify them.  
@@ -318,5 +318,5 @@ These Buddhist ideas — tested by history and enriched by the wisdom of many pe
 {% 功德无量 = merit beyond measure (standard Buddhist phrase); 理直气壮、大张旗鼓 = confidently and vigorously (paired intensifiers) %}
 
 孙英刚教授：感谢魏教授和济法师，相信通过他们详细又富有感悟的讲解，大家对佛教有了更多认识。佛教已绵延2500多年，不论在信仰、文化还是历史领域，都扮演着非常重要的角色。我们期望学术得到推动，文化得到进步，佛法继续弘扬。
-Prof. Sun Yinggang: Thank you, Professor Wei and Master Jiqun. I believe that through your detailed and heartfelt exposition, everyone has gained a deeper understanding of Buddhism. For over 2,500 years, Buddhism has played a profoundly important role — whether in the domains of faith, culture, or history. We hope that scholarship will advance, culture will progress, and the Dharma will continue to flourish.
-{% 富有感悟 = insightful/rich in insight (not "heartfelt" which adds unintended emotion); 佛法继续弘扬 = may the Dharma continue to flourish %}
+Prof. Sun Yinggang: Thank you, Professor Wei and Master Jiqun. I believe that through your detailed and insightful exposition, everyone has gained a deeper understanding of Buddhism. For over 2,500 years, Buddhism has played a profoundly important role — whether in the domains of faith, culture, or history. We hope that scholarship will advance, culture will progress, and the Dharma will continue to flourish.
+{% 富有感悟 = insight/realization; rendered "insightful" (not "heartfelt" which adds unintended emotion); 佛法继续弘扬 = may the Dharma continue to flourish %}