Living in this world, we have our own views on life, the world, and values. Because of these different views and life experiences, our attitudes toward life vary greatly. As Buddhists, how should we practice and live? Should we be passive or proactive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Cherish life or face death? Benefit ourselves or benefit others? To love or not to love? These questions are not only widely misunderstood by society but also remain unclear to many Buddhist practitioners. If we lack clear understanding, it not only hinders our own cultivation, but also makes it difficult to share the essence of Buddhism and embody the true spirit of a Buddhist practitioner. In light of this, this lecture will explore eight key aspects to interpret “The Life Attitudes of Buddhists.”
In China, people generally perceive Buddhists as passive and pessimistic. They believe that Buddhism is merely a source of comfort in old age or a means of healing after setbacks in career or relationships. Due to these misconceptions, many people keep distance from Buddhism, fearing that embracing the faith would strip away life’s pleasures or make them seem different from others. But are Buddhists truly passive? If not, in what ways are they proactive? To answer this question, we must first ask what it means to be passive and proactive.
1.消极、积极的定义和产生
1. The Definitions and Origins of Passivity and Proactivity
Passivity and proactivity reflect our emotions, behaviors, and attitudes toward life. To understand this better, let us first look at how they are expressed and the background from which they arise.
Passivity refers to a lack of interest that leads to a lack of effort, inaction, or unwillingness to strive, and sometimes even deliberate avoidance or resistance. Its opposite is proactivity. When it comes to one’s attitude towards life, passivity is often linked with a sense of world-weariness. In Chinese, this is described as being “passive and weary of the world,” a phrase that carries an entirely negative meaning.
In fact, passivity and proactivity are neutral in themselves. Only when applied to specific situations can they be judged as right or wrong. When we fail to make an effort in meaningful pursuits, such passivity is negative and needs to change. Likewise, when we are obsessed with trivial or even harmful things, such proactivity is also negative. Simply put, we should do what should be done and refrain from what should not. I think we can all agree on this.
The key difference lies in how we define what should be done and what is truly positive and meaningful. And this depends on our values. Different values lead to very different judgements about what counts as passivity and proactivity. In traditional Chinese culture, Confucianism takes an active part in worldly affairs: it encourages people to cultivate personal virtue, foster harmony within the family, govern society with integrity, and strive for peace throughout the world. However, Daoism upholds the principle of “non-action,” favoring a natural and effortless way of governance. From the perspective of social development, being proactive seem positive. Yet, is the relentless pursuit of progress always the right approach?
Ever since China’s reform and opening-up, the entire society has been seeking economic development, eager to convert all available resources into wealth as quickly as possible. After decades of poverty, this proactive drive has indeed improved people’s living standards, yielding certain positive effects. Yet as ecological degradation worsens and moral boundaries are continually breached, people, living amid both environmental and spiritual pollution, have begun to see the side effects of blind proactivity. The spread of counterfeit and substandard products, along with many forms of social disorder—are these not all the results of such relentless “positive” pursuit?
If we act proactively without distinguishing right from wrong, our actions are improper. But if we know something is wrong and still do it deliberately, that kind of proactiveness becomes intentional wrongdoing and must be stopped. Therefore, the key is not whether we act, but what we do and how we do it.
Why are we proactive about some things, yet passive or even resistant toward others? The answer lies first in our own perception. What we consider important, valuable, or interesting naturally draws our attention and effort.
A classic example is Confucius: he spent his lifetime seeking to restore the Zhou rites and promote his philosophical and political ideals, traveling among the feudal states to persuade their rulers. Along the way, he encountered many setbacks, including the scorn of hermits. However, he never gave up—persisting even when he knew success was unlikely. In contrast to Confucius’s proactive engagement with the world, many reclusive scholars in history found refuge in nature and led a life of detachment and non-action. According to the Zhuangzi, when Emperor Yao intended to cede the throne to Xu You, Xu You not only refused but also went to the river to wash his ears, feeling that such words had tainted him. This was the very opportunity Confucius dreamed of—power within reach, a chance to realize his grand vision. Clearly, people have different aspirations. Xu You longed for a carefree and unfettered life, viewing fame and fortune as both meaningless and best to be avoided.
In addition to values, passivity and proactivity are also influenced by life experiences. Some people encounter obstacles at every turn during their growth. They struggle in their careers and unhappy marriages, enduring various setbacks that make them feel hopeless. Over time, they come to see the world through a negative lens—focusing on potential obstacles, exaggerating their impact, and avoiding new attempts out of fear of failure. Others, by contrast, have enjoyed a smoother path in life and therefore tend to view things more positively, with greater confidence in striving for what they want. Of course, attitudes shaped by experience are not always stable, for circumstances change. When adversity and failure recur, even those who were once positive may lose heart and become pessimistic.
Additionally, passivity and proactivity are also influenced by external circumstances. This is why the ancients said, “When in adversity, cultivate oneself; when in prosperity, benefit the world.” When we are frustrated, it is best to turn inward to cultivate character and improve ourselves; When we attain success and high position, we should step forward to assist virtuous rulers and work for the benefit of all.
Life is short and our energy is limited; we cannot have everything, so we are constantly making choices. Every choice entails trade-offs: in gaining one thing, we must give up another. The purpose of choosing is to make the best use of our limited time and energy. We should be proactive in what we choose to pursue while adopting a passive attitude toward unrelated matters that could become distractions. The ancients said that “Indulgence in trivial pleasures can destroy one’s resolve.” Why is this so? Because we fail to distinguish between what is primary and what is secondary. As a result, we spend too much time on matters that should be taken lightly, to the point that it interferes with our normal study and work.
In conclusion, passivity and proactivity are relative. At different stages of life, and when facing different matters, we make our own choices. What we choose is influenced by our perception, experiences, and the environment around us. These choices shape the course of our lives and give meaning to our lives. We all have things we’re passionate about, but some pursuits can lead to obsession, moral decline, or even harm to society—this is how we actively create negative *karma*. However, other pursuits help us improve our mental states, elevate the quality of our lives, and benefit both ourselves and others—this is how we actively cultivate positive karma.
2. 佛教是消极的吗
2. Is Buddhism Passive?
很多人认为佛教是消极的。之所以形成这种看法，主要有以下原因。
Many people think that Buddhism is passive. This view mainly arises for the following reasons.
The first reason lies in the monastic system. Monastics must renounce secular life and let go of attachments to family, relationships, wealth, and social status. In contrast, traditional Chinese values regard building a family and a career as life’s most important undertakings, and continuing the family lineage as a fundamental act of filial piety. Furthermore, bringing honor to one’s ancestors through wealth and prestige is seen as an even higher aspiration. From this perspective, letting go of secular life appears passive, while striving for fame and fortune seems proactive.
The second reason lies in the Buddhist way of life. Most people are caught up in eating, drinking and other worldly pleasures. Especially today, the modern world constantly fuels desires and promotes consumption, keeping people absorbed in both real and virtual pleasures. In contrast, monastics live simply—they are vegetarian, celibate, and content with few desires. Many find this difficult to understand, for they see Buddhist practitioners as indifferent to life and out of step with modern times, and view their way of living as a form of self-imposed suffering.
The third reason comes from the Buddhist attitudes toward life. Most people have a strong sense of self-attachment, and see themselves as the center of everything, which easily leads to conflict with others. Influenced by Darwinian ideas such as “natural selection” and “survival of the fittest,” people continually strive to possess more, compare and compete with others. This inevitably gives rise to conflicts between individuals, groups, ethnicities, and even nations. In contrast, monastics lead a peaceful life, free from contention, and follow the path of forbearance. To ordinary people, such an attitude may appear passive.
Therefore, it may seem reasonable to label Buddhism as “negative.” But the problem lies in the standard of judgment—when the standard is wrong, the conclusion is bound to be wrong.
Although monastics give up the pursuit of fame, wealth, and social status, they seek a higher spiritual fulfillment. While they let go of material pleasures, they strive for the ultimate joy of liberation. Though they practice forbearance, it is neither about suppressing anger nor a sign of weakness. Rather, it arises from great inner strength—the ability to calmly accept all that life brings. Without creating opposition, they resolve problems with wisdom.
Therefore, passivity and proactivity cannot be judged in a fixed way. If we look at an issue only from one aspect, our understanding will inevitably be one‑sided. Only when we observe from different aspects and think deeply can we make the right choice. Buddhism, from the insight of wisdom, guides the way for us.
So, are Buddhists really passive or proactive? It depends on how we look at them. In worldly life, Buddhists may appear passive, but regarding life’s pursuit, they are proactive.
Throughout Buddhist history, countless great masters have devoted themselves to spreading the true *Dharma*, even at the risk of their lives. It is through their tireless efforts that Buddhism was transmitted from India to China and eventually to the rest of the world, allowing generation after generation to benefit from studying and practicing its teachings.
During the Tang Dynasty, the eminent monk Jianzhen (known in Japan as Ganjin) made six attempts to voyage to Japan to transmit the Dharma. His journey spanned ten years, marked by unimaginable hardships. Along the way, many of his disciples succumbed to storms and illness, and he himself lost his sight due to the arduous journey. Yet, he remained unwavering in his resolve. Finally, at the age of 66, he set foot on the foreign land and became the founding patriarch of the *Vinaya* School in Japan.
(2)佛教徒要研究经教，探索真理
(2) Buddhists Must Study the Teachings and Seek the Truth
Studying Buddhism is a journey in pursuit of truth. Only by actively studying the teachings can we establish the right views, practice according to the Dharma, and explore the true meaning of life. When we open The Memoirs of Eminent Monks, we find that every great master of the past has set an inspiring example for us to follow. This is before we even mention the Buddha’s extraordinary sacrifices in his past lives, such as offering his own body in exchange for a single verse of the Dharma, or the bodhisattvas’ aspirations and actions—using their skin as paper, their bones as pens, and their blood as ink.
Master Xuanzang, after extensively seeking wisdom from virtuous teachers across China, realized that the Buddhist sutras available in China were far from complete. He resolutely embarked on a journey westward in search of the Dharma from India. Traveling to India in that era was an immense challenge—so perilous that “of a hundred who set out, fewer than ten would return.” Crossing desolate deserts and perilous snow-capped mountains, he narrowly escaped death countless times before finally reaching the sacred land. There, he studied for many years at Nalanda, the preeminent Buddhist academy of the time. Master Xuanzang’s vast knowledge, extraordinary memory, and sharp reasoning earned the admiration of many Buddhist schools in India, making his renown unmatched in his era. Yet, his pursuit of the Dharma was never for personal reputation—it was to bring this wisdom back to China. Overcoming tremendous hardships once more, he returned to China and launched the most extensive translation project in the history of Chinese Buddhism. Master Xuanzang dedicated his entire life to the profound study of Buddhist teachings, took the pursuit of truth as his mission, and truly embodied the *Mahayana* spirit of selfless service to all beings.
As Buddhist disciples, we too should follow the example of the wise and take up the mission of cultivating the mind within and spreading the Dharma without. This is because Buddhist wisdom holds universal value—it is something that all sentient beings need. Confusion is not ours alone, nor is awakening our exclusive goal. The effort to overcome afflictions is a shared journey for all beings. In reality, all sentient beings are troubled by confusion and afflictions, though many are either too preoccupied to address them or have yet to realize their presence. Throughout history, philosophers from both East and West have sought to uncover the true meaning of life. Who am I? Where do we come from, and where do we go after death? What is the purpose of living? Without the wisdom attained by the Buddha through enlightenment, mere speculation alone cannot provide us with answers to these ultimate questions.
Therefore, we must actively study the teachings and seek the truth, for the benefit of ourselves and all sentient beings. Although learning the Dharma has become more accessible today, to pursue the truth, we must dedicate our lives to its practice with unwavering perseverance.
(3)佛教徒要明辨是非，止恶行善
(3) Buddhists Must Distinguish Right from Wrong and Choose Good over Evil
As both good and evil exist in the human world, there has long been debate over whether human nature is inherently good or inherently evil. Which view is correct? From the Buddhist perspective, human nature is neither inherently good nor evil. Rather, it is a coexistence and struggle between these two forces. Practicing Buddhism means refraining from evil and cultivating virtue, as expressed in the verse: “Do no evil, practice all good, purify the mind—this is the teaching of all buddhas.” This verse comes from the Avatamsaka Sutra and was a teaching imparted by the Seven Buddhas of the past to their disciples. Back then, when Bai Juyi asked Master Niaochao about the Dharma, the Master also responded with this verse, which shows its importance. The Dharma is vast and profound, yet when embodied in practice, it centers on eliminating unwholesome states of mind and nurturing compassion and wisdom.
The *Sravaka* Vehicle focuses on the principle of “Do no evil.” Such practice itself is also a way of cultivating virtue. If no one kills, we will not suffer harm. If no one steals, we will be free from exploitation. If no one engages in sexual misconduct, countless conflicts in the world will be avoided. If no one lies, we don’t need to fear deception. If no one consumes intoxicants, keeping the mind clear, many tragedies never arise. Beyond this, one must further eliminate greed, anger, ignorance, and the self-attachment born of delusion, eradicating negative mental states at their root.
Meanwhile, the Bodhisattva Path places greater emphasis on “practicing all good.” It is not only about observing precepts to benefit others, but also about actively doing good deeds. Thus, in the Bodhisattva precepts, beyond the precepts of moral discipline, there are also the precepts of cultivating virtuous deeds and the precepts of benefiting sentient beings.
不论是止恶，还是修善，都离不开积极的心态和行动。这不是一时的心血来潮，而要尽未来际地努力。
Whether it is refraining from evil or practicing good deeds, both require a proactive mindset and consistent action. This is not a momentary impulse, but a lifelong effort that extends endlessly into the future.
(4) 佛教徒要完善人格，济世度人
(4) Buddhists Must Cultivate Their Character and Benefit Others
If we aspire to help and guide others like the buddhas and bodhisattvas, we must first actively cultivate and refine our own character, starting with overcoming our afflictions. Sentient beings continue to cycle through birth and death because of the ignorance within their minds, while external circumstances merely serve as supporting conditions. If we were free from greed, we would not be swayed by fame and fortune or become enslaved by our desires. If we were free from anger, we would not be disturbed by adversity or suffer the pain of a second arrow—the emotional distress that follows physical pain. If we were free from ignorance, we would not lose sight of life’s true direction, blindly following fleeting feelings.
Practicing Buddhism is a profound transformation of our life—a process of reshaping our deluded personality into the perfected qualities of the Buddha, embodying three virtues of eliminating afflictions, wisdom, and compassion.
Regardless of the practice we follow, it is essential to overcome the habits that have been ingrained since beginningless time. It is like a warrior facing an army of ten thousand—we must press forward with fearless resolve. In Buddhism, there is a concept known as “armor-like diligence,” akin to a warrior donning armor and charging fearlessly into battle. However, in spiritual practice, the true enemies do not come from outside but arise from within. Only by conquering the inner Māra can we break free from delusion. Thus, the greatest enemy in life is not others, but ourselves.
In conclusion, Buddhists should take the buddhas and bodhisattvas as their role models, set clear life goals, actively pursue truth, and spread the Dharma. From this perspective, the Buddhist attitude toward life is undoubtedly positive. Many people regard Buddhism as passive simply because they judge it by their own feelings. They do not truly understand the aspirations of Buddhist practitioners or realize the profound value that Buddhism offers to both life and society.
When discussing passivity and proactivity, we cannot avoid another related topic: pessimism and optimism. These pairs share a similarity—passivity and pessimism often give rise to each other, just as proactivity and optimism do. The difference lies in their focus: passivity and proactivity are mainly expressed in our attitude and manner of conduct, while pessimism and optimism reflect our views on life and the world—underlying tone that colors our lives.
1. 悲观、乐观的定义和产生
1. The Definitions and Origins of Pessimism and Optimism
A common metaphor for pessimism and optimism is the half-filled glass of water. The pessimist sees it as “half empty” and feels disheartened, while the optimist sees it as “half full” and feels content. Facing the same half-filled glass of water, different mindsets bring entirely opposite feelings. From this perspective, pessimism may seem undesirable. However, throughout history, many philosophers have examined life from a deeper level and ultimately reached pessimistic conclusions.
Arthur Schopenhauer is a prime example. He believed that “Life is filled with all forms of desire: when desire is unfulfilled, we suffer; when it is satisfied, we grow bored. Life thus swings like a pendulum between suffering and boredom.” This vividly reflects the lives of most people. Desire is innate to life itself. When it is not fulfilled, we chase after it with endless effort because we feel empty and restless. Yet once a desire is met, weariness soon follows, and we begin to pursue new ones. In this endless cycle, life gradually wears itself out, leaving us with nothing more than fleeting moments of satisfaction and little sense of meaning. Therefore, Schopenhauer also compared human life to a clock that has been wound up and moves blindly on, unaware of why it ticks. In his view, everything is driven by the blind will to live, which makes the pursuit of ultimate purpose or value meaningless.
Apart from the pessimism that arises from philosophical reflection, ordinary people may also develop a pessimistic mindset shaped by factors such as personality, education, and experiences. This kind of pessimism is often closely linked to passivity. Compared with philosophical pessimism, this kind is less deep and therefore easier to change.
Optimism also has both surface and deep levels. When optimism comes mainly from favorable circumstances, it tends to be fragile. It is a surface‑level optimism—one without real roots, similar to what people sometimes call “foolish happiness.” Such optimism depends on favorable external conditions, but once hardships arise, it becomes difficult to maintain. In fact, lacking resilience, it may quickly turn into pessimism. This is something we should be careful about.
True optimism lies in understanding that everything has both positive and negative aspects. So we choose to see things from the positive side. This is optimism based on wisdom. With this mindset, no matter what we encounter, we can still find the positive side rather than being swayed by external circumstances.
(2) 悲观和乐观的产生背景
(2) The Background of Pessimism and Optimism
可见，悲观和乐观都有深浅两个层面。
It is clear that both pessimism and optimism have surface and deep levels.
Deep pessimism comes from reflecting on and searching for the meaning of life. When we cannot find the value of life or understanding the purpose of living, we tend to see more of life’s helplessness, insignificance, and suffering. This kind of pessimism cannot be changed by external factors such as fame, wealth, or pleasure. This is why many intellectuals—philosophers, writers, and artists—remain in suffering even after achieving success, and some even end their own lives. They see how absurd and illusory life is, but cannot find a way out. After all, death is inevitable. If we believe that nothing remains after death, then, in a certain sense, life has no value.
Just as a Western saying goes, “If we have only one life to live, we might as well not have lived at all.” Even if you could live for ten thousand years, what difference would it make? It will all pass in the blink of an eye. Dinosaurs once dominated the Earth for 150 million years, yet they went extinct 60 million years ago, leaving only fossils to show they ever existed. Similarly, no matter how much wealth or success we achieve, no matter how high our status or how great our fame, if we only live once, then after a few decades, everything will vanish with death. In the vast history spanning hundreds of millions or even billions of years, even the most glorious life is as small as a speck of dust. What value does such a life truly hold?
To live well, we must find the meaning of life—for it is what gives us a reason to live. Of course, some people rarely reflect on the meaning of life. They feel content as long as they live as others do: to start a family, have children, and build a career. Their greatest hopes are nothing more than to live comfortably, see their children succeed, and enjoy a smooth career. They may not even feel that life should have any deeper meaning: “Isn’t this how everyone lives? What more is there to seek?” However, for those who think deeply, it is easy to see through the fleeting and illusory nature of these external pursuits. Only by discovering life’s true meaning can they find peace of mind. Yet, without great wisdom, it is very hard to answer these ultimate questions. When one searches far and wide yet finds no answers, or exhausts both body and mind in vain, a deep pessimism naturally arises.
Buddhism teaches that life is suffering, and this is often mistaken for pessimism. Schopenhauer’s pessimistic philosophy, for example, is believed to have been influenced by Buddhist thought. However, this understanding is incomplete. In fact, suffering is merely a skillful means of expression, meant for ordinary beings, for their lives are governed by ignorance, delusion and karma. As the *Ksitigarbha* Sutra says, “Every thought that arises in ignorance gives rise to wrongdoing and karma.” Yet Buddhism also tells us that life has another dimension. If we can transcend ignorance and eradicate afflictions, we can return to our inherent state of awakened nature.
These two views are not in conflict. Life has both deluded and awakened aspects, much like clouds and the vast sky. When the sky is covered with clouds, it may seem that the clouds are everything. Yet the sky itself remains clear and vast—only when the clouds disperse do we see its true nature. In delusion, life’s nature is suffering, which gives rise to pessimism. In awakening, its true nature is pure and complete, leaving no room for pessimism.
2. 佛教是悲观的吗
2. Is Buddhism Pessimistic?
在很多人的印象中，佛教是悲观的。这种误解主要来自出家制度和某些法义。
Many people think of Buddhism as pessimistic—a misunderstanding that mainly comes from its monastic traditions and certain teachings.
In ancient times, becoming a monastic was called “entering the gate of emptiness.” The phrase carries a sense of helplessness—as if one had reached a dead end and grown weary of the secular world—or a sense of solitude, a life spent in stillness among dim lanterns and ancient Buddhas. This image is often portrayed in literature and film. As a result, many people view ordination as an act of escape or a pessimistic response to life’s setbacks.
In fact, this is a complete misunderstanding. Although such cases do exist among monastics, they are neither the norm nor the true purpose of ordination. The Buddha himself was once a prince, yet he gave up his royal luxuries to embrace a monastic life, free of material possessions. He made this choice to pursue higher spiritual goals. This is because he had witnessed the suffering of aging, illness, and death; the fleeting and illusory nature of worldly life; and the delusion and afflictions that trouble all beings. Without addressing these issues, we cannot find the true meaning of life. For ordinary people, life often flows along with the current of the world, while monastics have the courage to go against it. Their choice is not an act of pessimism or escape.
The teachings that many people misunderstand are those on suffering, emptiness, and impermanence taught in the Sravaka vehicle. Many people long for love, career success, fame, and fortune, tirelessly pursuing sensual pleasures. For example, the pleasures in the Three Realms, or the five sensual pleasures of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. Yet the Buddha teaches us that a life built upon delusion is inherently tainted by afflictions, and any worldly happiness is only a brief relief from suffering, fleeting and impermanent.
Whether in its monastic system or its teachings, Buddhism is not pessimistic. What people call “pessimism” is merely a misunderstanding rooted in a worldly point of view. As the saying goes, “Ordination is the undertaking of a true hero, something even generals and ministers cannot accomplish.” This is because renouncing worldly pleasures requires great courage. And seeking the truth calls for even greater courage—the strength to endure what is hard to endure, to accomplish what seems impossible, and to stand firm even when facing ten thousand opponents.
If the Sravaka teaching represents a wise understanding of the world as it truly is, then the Bodhisattva Path embodies an infinite vow of compassion for all beings. For Mahayana practitioners, we realize the afflictions within our own lives. This naturally leads us to see that others suffer in the same way. We cannot bear to see them trapped in the ocean of suffering, unaware of their own suffering. Thus, we must generate *bodhicitta* and take benefiting all beings as our mission. This is not a fleeting impulse but a lifelong commitment that extends endlessly into the future.
3. 不悲不喜，如实知见
3. Free from Sorrow and Joy, Seeing Things as They Truly Are
Although Buddhism is not pessimistic, we should not assume that it is optimistic. In fact, both pessimism and optimism are partial views of life. Buddhism helps us cultivate the wisdom of seeing things as they truly are, which allows our views to align with the truth of the world – that is, the Middle Way.
First, although Buddhism regards life as illusory and teaches us that “all conditioned phenomena are like dreams, illusions, bubbles or shadows,” it does not deny the existence of phenomena. By viewing the world through the lens of dependent origination, Buddhism reveals that everything is a manifestation of cause and effect, a false appearance arising from conditions. There is no entity that exists independently, remains unchanged, or possesses the power of control. Therefore, nothing is permanent, nor does it end in complete extinction. Life, in fact, is like a river, flowing from the infinite past into the endless future. Understanding the cycle of rebirth gives life its length, while understanding the nature of the mind gives life its depth. Buddhist wisdom can help us not only recognize life’s length and depth, but also realize the emptiness of all phenomena as they arise. It is not a pessimistic view of life; it is a way of seeing things as they truly are.
Second, although Buddhism recognizes that life is filled with delusion, it also tells us that all sentient beings have the capacity for self-liberation. Delusion, in this sense, refers to the uncertainty about life’s ultimate questions. Unable to find answers, we become trapped in our own perceptions, giving rise to afflictions and unwholesome karma, unable to free ourselves. What is the way out? Only by studying Buddhism can we understand that behind our delusion and afflictions lies the potential for enlightenment. When Shakyamuni Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, he realized, “I have found path of the ancient sages—the very path by which all the buddhas of the past attained enlightenment.” Later, he taught for forty-five years, revealing countless methods to guide sentient beings toward awakening. Thus, Buddhism points out the reality of ordinary beings not to make us despair, but to awaken us and help us see where hope lies.
Third, Buddhism teaches bodhicitta and the Bodhisattva Path, giving life profound meaning and opening a bright way forward, even within the cycle of *samsara*. On this path, the buddhas, bodhisattvas, and great masters stand as shining examples. Yet many philosophers have failed to find a way out, for they rely solely on rationality, which is rather limited. Buddhism, however, emphasizes not only rationality and right view, but also the meditative practices of samatha and vipassana. More importantly, through cultivating bodhicitta and benefiting others, we can break free from self-clinging and nurture compassion, realizing the harmonious perfection of both compassion and wisdom. Following the path illuminated by the Buddha, guided by the footsteps of accomplished practitioners before us—how could we possibly remain pessimistic?
如果我们真正了解佛教，尤其是菩萨道精神，就会知道佛教绝不是悲观的。
If we truly understand Buddhism, especially the spirit of the Bodhisattva Path, we will know that Buddhism is not pessimistic at all.
First of all, a life rooted in delusion and affliction is by nature full of suffering. Many Buddhist sutras clearly describe suffering, including the three kinds of suffering, the eight sufferings, and countless other forms of suffering. The boundless universe is essentially a place where suffering accumulates. However, due to ignorance, we often only see the surface of things and rarely touch the underlying truths. We think that getting married and starting a family is happiness, not realizing that this is the beginning of new bonds. We believe that having children is a source of joy, unaware that it is also the beginning of emotional entanglements. We see career success as fulfillment, not knowing that it brings us pressure. Facing such realities, we find it hard to remain optimistic.
Second, we must face the impermanence of life. Life is fragile, and death is inevitable, though the timing of death is unpredictable. Where will we go after death? In this life, we have the rare opportunity to be born as human beings and to hear the Dharma. If our breath stops suddenly, are we certain where we will go in the next life? If we cannot be the master of ourselves now, then when death comes, we will have even less power to choose our path—only to be carried along by the force of our karma. Therefore, we cannot be optimistic before attaining enlightenment.
Third, we must realize the danger of the Three Lower Realms—those of hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals. From beginningless time, we have created countless unwholesome actions. Once these actions bear fruit, we will inevitably fall into the Three Lower Realms and suffer there for long eons. As long as afflictions and karma remain, we will endlessly cycle through the Six Realms. Even if we are fortunate enough to be born as humans, we cannot guarantee that we will encounter wise teachers or hear the Buddha Dharma. Thus, we cannot be optimistic about where our lives will lead.
Fourth, even if we attain realization and gain mastery over life and death, as Mahayana practitioners, we still carry the mission of liberating others. When we see sentient beings deeply trapped in suffering, we cannot bear to see them suffer, and we vow to liberate them. However, sentient beings are difficult to guide, and aspiration alone is not enough to help them. When we see how difficult the Bodhisattva Path is, and how unyielding sentient beings remain, it is hard for us to remain optimistic.
Fifth, we must face the chaos of the Dharma-ending Age. Today, natural disasters and human calamities are countless. Driven by greed, our planet has been left scarred and desolate—its air, water, forests, grasslands, mountains, and even the polar regions polluted and damaged, some beyond repair. In this Defiled World of the Five Turbidities, everywhere we turn we see the danger of self-destruction. Facing such harsh realities, we find it difficult to remain optimistic.
所以说，生命的前景虽然光明，但现实不容我们乐观。
In summary, though the future of life is bright, the reality before us makes it difficult to stay optimistic.
Buddhist practice emphasizes the Middle Way. In daily life, this is expressed as a balanced attitude—neither pessimistic nor optimistic. This is because both pessimism and optimism arise from a one‑sided view of reality: pessimism easily lead to despair, while optimism can lead to recklessness. In countless teachings, the Buddha reminded us to see ourselves and the world as they truly are. This means that we need to see the shortcomings of life, giving rise to the aspiration to be free from suffering and attain happiness. At the same time, we should realize that life itself holds the potential for self‑liberation, thereby developing firm confidence in the bright future that our practice can bring.
How can we cultivate a Middle-Way attitude in life? Firstly, we must establish the right view, the first of the Noble Eightfold Path. This means we should avoid eternalism and nihilism, as the teaching says: “Neither arising nor ceasing, neither permanent nor annihilated, neither identical nor different, neither coming nor going.” With right view, in daily life, we neither indulge in desires nor bring unnecessary suffering upon ourselves. In practice, we work diligently without becoming overly rigid. It is like tuning the strings of a musical instrument—only when the strings are neither too loose nor too tight can they produce harmonious music.
It is the same with understanding the teachings. We should grasp the literal meaning of the texts while also uncovering the deeper insights they convey. Only in this way can we understand not only what the Buddha taught, but also why he taught it—thereby avoiding partial interpretations or misreading his teachings. For example, when the Buddha said, “Life is suffering,” he did not mean that we should avoid or passively endure suffering, nor was he encouraging pessimism or world-weariness. Instead, he was guiding us to see reality as it is, so that we are not deceived by the illusion of fleeting pleasures. By finding the root causes of suffering, we can address them at their source and attain true happiness. Only by facing the reality of life can we apply the wisdom of the Dharma to actively transform ourselves and bring benefit to all beings.
Monastics are known for their celibacy, vegetarian living, simple robes, and freedom from material possessions. In the early Buddhist *Sangha*, renunciants lived very simply, possessing only three robes and a bowl, sustaining themselves through alms. *Chan* poetry also reflects this way of life, emphasizing a state of detachment and contentment:
In reality, this is a long-standing misunderstanding. Desire has many dimensions and is not limited to material aspects alone. Moreover, Buddhism has different precepts for monastics and lay practitioners, meaning that learning Buddhism does not equate to absolute renunciation of desire, as many assume. So, how does Buddhism truly view desire?
Desire refers to needs, which can be physical or mental, instinctive or socially influenced. In Buddhism, the world is divided into three realms: the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm, collectively known as the Three Realms. We exist in the Desire Realm, where all beings are governed by desires, tirelessly striving to satisfy them—even at the cost of their lives. As the saying goes, “Humans risk their lives for riches, just as birds risk theirs for food.”
In the human realm, desire manifests in five main forms: wealth, sexual pleasure, fame, food, and sleep. Wealth is the craving for material possessions; sexual pleasure embraces emotional and sexual desire; fame reflects the pursuit of recognition; food meets the need for nourishment; and sleep fulfills the body’s need for rest. The average person sleeps about eight hours a day— roughly one‑third of life.
Among the five desires, the most prominent are the desires for food and sexual pleasure, as the saying goes: “Food and sex are among humanity’s greatest desires.” They form the foundation for human survival and reproduction. The *sutra* states, “All sentient beings rely on food to sustain life.” Although “food” usually refers to what we eat and drink, in this context it includes four kinds of sustenance: edible food, the daily meals that nourish the physical body; contact as food, the external environment that shapes the quality of life; volitional intention as food, the will to survive that drives life forward; and consciousness as food, the alaya-vijnana that sustains the continuity of existence.
Everyone has certain desires they give more weight to. The greedy may stop at nothing for wealth; the lustful lose reason in pursuit of beauty. The vain sacrifice everything for fame; The indulgent treat fine food as life’s greatest pleasure. The lazy waste precious time in sleep.
The five desires are rooted in the five sense faculties—eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and body—which serve as our channels for perceiving the world. These faculties, in turn, are deeply attached to external sensations. For example, the eyes crave pleasing colors and sights. The ears crave melodious and pleasant sounds. The tongue craves delicious flavors. The nose craves fragrant scents. The body craves comfort and pleasurable sensations.
Beyond these physical desires, there are also mental and socially driven ones. These include the growth of basic needs, such as pursuing luxury brands, seeking new experiences, and striving to keep up with social trends. For example, how large a house does one really need? The standards from a few decades ago are entirely different from those of today. Such changes are largely driven by mental needs and social comparisons rather than practical need.
In addition, there are also purely spiritual pursuits, arising from faith or from fields like literature and the arts. These, too, fall within the realm of desire, which is why we speak of “spiritual nourishment.” Without desire, we would not seek faith with deep inquiry, feel the urge to create, or even take pleasure in appreciating art. If that were the case, how dull and lifeless human history would be.
How should we view desire? Should we treat it as a dangerous force that must be strictly forbidden, or as a natural human right to indulge freely? Throughout history, religious teachers and philosophers have held differing perspectives on this matter.
During the Buddha’s time, there were ninety-six non-Buddhist schools in India, most of which advocated asceticism. They believed that desire was the root of all evil and that only through extreme physical hardship could one remove desires and purify the body and mind. At the beginning of his spiritual quest, the Buddha personally witnessed various ascetic practices in the forest outside Rajagrha. Some practitioners endured starvation, some submerged themselves in water all day, others stood on one leg for years, and some exposed their bare bodies to the scorching sun. Influenced by these practices, the Buddha himself undertook six years of severe asceticism, “eating only a sesame seed or a single grain of rice per day, until his body became emaciated like a withered tree.” He became so weak that, while bathing in the Neranjara River, he lacked the strength to reach the shore. Through this experience, he realized that extreme asceticism only weakens the body without cultivating wisdom or leading to liberation.
Christianity also holds that desire led to humanity’s downfall. Adam and Eve originally lived carefree in paradise, but after being tempted by the devil to eat the forbidden fruit, they were cast out of the Garden of Eden. As a result, in Christian moral teachings, desire is seen as conflicting with a devout and pure religious life. To attain spiritual purity, humans must overcome greed and practice strict self-discipline.
Aside from religion, how do philosophers view desire? Antisthenes and Diogenes were key figures of the Cynic school in ancient Greek philosophy. They believed that desire was the root of all suffering and advocated the idea that “Virtue lies in contentment, and freedom from desire is divine.” They not only preached this philosophy but also lived by it. Their only possessions were a staff, a cloak, a begging pouch, and a drinking bowl. One day, Diogenes saw a child scooping water with his hands at a river. Inspired by the simplicity of this act, he immediately discarded his bowl as well.
Early Confucianism did not treat desire as a destructive force. As Xunzi stated, “When hungry, one desires food; when cold, one desires warmth; when weary, one desires rest; people seek benefit and avoid harm—these are human instincts.” This view accepts basic human needs. It was only later that Confucianism began to emphasize the dangers of desire. By the time of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, philosophers began to advocate “eliminating human desires to preserve moral principles.” This view held that true morality could only manifest once desires were eradicated.
After the Renaissance, the West broke free from the theocratic constraints of the Middle Ages and began to affirm human desires as natural and reasonable. People saw eating, sleeping, and sexual activity as basic instincts and rightful needs, believing that everyone had every reason to enjoy these inborn desires. This new attitude affirmed and encouraged such desires, greatly fueling the West’s scientific and economic progress. However, it also gave rise to an endless array of social issues.
2. 佛教怎么看待欲望
2. How Does Buddhism View Desires?
佛教认为，从道德属性上，欲望可分为善、恶和无记三种。
Buddhism believes that, in terms of their moral quality, desires can be classified into wholesome, unwholesome, and neutral.
In life, we all have basic needs that sustain our existence and allow human society to continue. When we’re hungry, we eat; when we’re thirsty, we drink; when we’re tired, we sleep. For lay Buddhists, this also includes a wholesome and proper family life. These desires are neither good nor bad in themselves—Buddhism calls them “neutral.” As long as we maintain moderation, meeting these needs brings no harm, and there’s no need to deliberately make ourselves suffer. Our physical body is like a tool: only by caring for it well can we use it effectively and allow it to serve a greater purpose.
In his early years of practice, the Buddha tried many forms of extreme ascetic practices, such as prolonged fasting and breath control, for six long years. Yet these severe practices neither brought enlightenment nor benefited his health—they only left his body weak and frail. Through this, he realized that blindly torturing the body was futile for spiritual cultivation—like trying to extract oil from sand, it would yield no results. Realizing this, he accepted a bowl of milk porridge offered by a shepherd girl, regained his strength, and then meditated diligently under the Bodhi tree, ultimately attaining enlightenment.
The Buddha rejected ascetic practices that bore no fruit, but he was even more cautious about indulgence in desire. He constantly reminded his disciples to “have few desires and be content.” For ordinary people, it is far more natural to seek pleasure than to endure hardship. Yet desire is never satisfied; it keeps expanding, revealing itself in the impulses to possess, to compare, and to compete.
For most people today, survival is no longer a concern, yet desire has not diminished—it has only grown stronger. People want more wealth, higher status, and greater fame, with no end in sight. Beyond the urge to possess, we constantly compare ourselves with others. Many spend their whole lives striving to get ahead, without ever asking what it really means to surpass someone else. Such needless comparisons only add to our burden. Comparison then turns into competition. While competition can indeed inspire potential and drive social progress, it also leaves us anxious, tense, and exhausted.
People keep striving to possess more, to compare, and to compete—all in the hope of living a happy life. Yet for many, even after gaining wealth, success, fame, and pleasure, happiness still feels out of reach. That’s because happiness is a fleeting emotion, closely linked to desire: it arises only when a desire is satisfied. In today’s world, our desires have multiplied and become harder to fulfill, raising the cost of happiness and leaving us exhausted. Without realizing it, we nurture countless desires, and when these desires turn into attachment, suffering naturally follows.
Today, we enjoy more material abundance than ever before—so much that we constantly have to throw things away. Does this mean we are living a happy life? If each possession were a factor of happiness, our happiness index should be constantly rising. But in reality, the happiness that material things bring is diminishing. In times of poverty, even a single delicious meal could bring lasting contentment. But today, eating too much often leaves us feeling fatigued rather than fulfilled. Studies by Western psychologists show that when people finally get something they have long desired, or achieve a long-awaited promotion and pay raise, the boost in happiness lasts no more than three months. The next feeling of happiness then depends on getting something better or reaching a higher status. But can we always get more, always go higher?
As desires continue to grow, anxiety, fear, and insecurity arise. The more we acquire, the stronger their fear of losing it becomes. Once what we have gained changes, negative emotions such as hatred, opposition, and conflict emerge, bringing along suffering. The problem is that everything in the world is impermanent. We may cling to wealth, but wealth depreciates; we may hold on to love, but love changes; we may chase after status, but status can be lost; we may depend on connections, but no connection is reliable. As the saying goes, “In this world, there are no eternal friends, only eternal interests.” If we do not let go of our greed, suffering will be endless.
Even worse, some people turn to crime in order to satisfy their desires. Most unlawful acts in the world, if traced to their roots, arise from craving, and from the anger when craving is unsatisfied. In satisfying their desires, people bring disaster not only upon themselves but also upon others and society at large. Even wars between nations are often rooted in the coveting of another country’s resources.
Greed not only affects this present life but is also a cause of samsara. In the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination,Sentient beings suffer from birth, aging, and death; their direct causes are craving, clinging, and becoming (the karmic cause of rebirth). When we become attached to objects of desire, we act upon them, creating karma that binds us to the cycle of samsara. Therefore, we must learn to restrain our desires. If we blindly pursue material possessions, compare ourselves with others, and compete against them, we are merely wasting our lives instead of enjoying them, and certainly not improving their quality.
(3) 善法欲是完善人格的动力
(3) Desire for Wholesome Dharma Perfects Character
As mentioned earlier, desire is a form of need, and by itself, it is neutral. The key lies in what we desire. Psychologist Abraham Maslow identified five levels of human needs: physiological needs, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization extending to self-transcendence. Thus, desire can also become a noble spiritual pursuit. This is known as wholesome desire, the aspiration to pursue the Dharma. For example, “I want liberation,” “I want to attain Buddhahood and help all sentient beings achieve liberation”—these are both the goals of our practice and the lasting source of our motivation. So, how can we cultivate the desire for wholesome Dharma? We must embrace a culture of wisdom.
In the Sravaka path, practice begins with the arising of renunciation—the desire to transcend the Five Desires and Six Sense Objects. Meditation practice consists of the four essential elements: “desire, diligence, mind, and contemplation,” also known as Four Bases of Spiritual Power. Among them, “desire” refers to the aspiration of “I want to practice,” which is a crucial foundation for meditation. Without this intention, we cannot even begin our practice, much less sustain it. In the Treatise on the Hundred Dharmas, the Five Situation-specific Mental Factors are “desire, resolve, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom,” with desire coming first, as it is the driving force for liberation. We gather here to hear the Dharma because of a wholesome desire—to study Buddhism, to liberate ourselves from delusion and suffering, and to seek wisdom and truth. All of these are forms of wholesome desire.
In practicing the Bodhisattva Path, we must generate bodhicitta, which includes both aspirational bodhicitta and engaged bodhicitta. Aspirational bodhicitta means establishing a noble altruistic aspiration. Only by setting such a wish in the presence of all the Buddhas of the ten directions and all sentient beings, and taking it as our mission throughout all future lives, can we further receive the Bodhisattva precepts and engage in the Bodhisattva practices. Therefore, engaged bodhicitta arises from aspirational bodhicitta, putting that aspiration into practice.
只有了解欲望的不同属性，我们才能正确看待并加以引导，让这一心理为修行服务，而不是被烦恼所用。
Only by understanding the different kinds of desire can we view them correctly and guide them wisely, so that this desire supports our cultivation, rather than being driven by afflictions.
1. 少欲知足，自利利他 （慧炬翻，观轩法师审）
1. Being Content with Fewer Desires, Benefiting Oneself and Others
The endless chase for material desires not only exhausts us but also fails to bring true happiness. Since happiness ultimately comes from the mind, material possessions merely serve as a supplementary factor. Therefore, Buddhism opposes indulging in primal, material cravings. However, it does not call for complete asceticism—especially regarding essential needs. Moderation is key. Thus, Buddhism teaches us to cherish our blessings and be content with fewer desires. This approach ensures both our well-being and environmental sustainability, rather than endlessly exploiting nature.
(1) 少欲知足是幸福人生的保障
(1) Being Content with Fewer Desires Ensures a Happy Life
China has long held the traditional values of cherishing blessings and material goods. However, in recent decades, people’s views on consumption have shifted dramatically. Today’s trend is to “earn hard and spend freely,” to believe that “out with the old, in with the new,” and even to embrace spending on credit. This mindset is especially prevalent among young people, who often think: “As long as I have the money, or can borrow it, why not spend it?” Such mentality is a surrender to desires, and its consequences are devastating. In recent years, young adults—including students—have struggled with crippling debt, and some have even been driven to suicide. Such cases have become alarmingly common. Many of these tragedies began with something seemingly trivial—a purchase beyond one’s means—but ended in the loss of a precious life. The harm caused by unchecked desire is truly heartbreaking.
This raises another question: if we can afford it, should we spend without restraint? In Buddhism, “death due to exhausted blessings” is regarded as one of the nine causes of death. Our blessings are like savings in an account: if your natural lifespan were to reach eighty, but you deplete your blessings by fifty, your life may come to an early end. From another perspective, some possessions may indeed bring comfort and pleasure, yet the effort we invest in obtaining them often consumes much of our time. Considering that every moment of our lives passes and never comes back, spending on certain things is in fact costing us our lives!
Two thousand years ago, the philosopher Socrates stood in a bustling marketplace and marveled “How many things I don’t need!” Today, our desires have kept growing, and the variety of goods available has multiplied beyond measure. Yet this abundance has not made our lives any easier. On the contrary, our pace has quickened, our stress has deepened, and we rarely have a moment to pause and ask ourselves: Why are we so busy? Are all our efforts truly worthwhile if they are spent chasing things we may not even need?
Actually, we don’t need much to live. When life is simple, we gain more time to enrich ourselves and to be with our loved ones. We can also slow down—watch flowers bloom and fade, and see clouds gather and glide. In this simplicity, we can release our burdens and seek the ultimate meaning of life.
(2) 少欲知足是保护环境的手段
(2) Being Content with Fewer Desires Protects the Environment
Humans share a collective blessing by living on Earth. Cherishing our own blessings also means valuing humanity’s shared prosperity and safeguarding our common home. While our desires are endless, resources are limited. To satisfy our desires, we have exploited nature, leading to the destruction of vast forests and arable land, soil erosion, and frequent natural disasters and human-made calamities. This is why so many visionaries are advocating for environmental protection.
Protecting the environment is a responsibility we all share, and none of us can escape responsibility for its degradation. Our growing desires for food, clothing, shelter, and transportation are damaging our planet. Among these, the pollution caused by our dietary choices is significant. According to available data, producing one pound of meat in the U.S. requires 2,500 gallons of water—equivalent to the monthly water consumption of an average household. Additionally, a meat‑based lifestyle consumes up to twelve times more water than a vegetarian one. Furthermore, waste and wastewater from poultry farming not only consumes water resources but also pollutes them, leading to long-term environmental damage.
Moreover, our need for clothing is no longer just about keeping warm. For example, when we pursue fashion made from fur, we directly threaten the survival of many animals. They are killed for their beautiful pelts, and this disrupts the harmony of nature and the ecological balance. Similarly, our demands for better housing have grown rapidly, even in developing economies such as China, real estate development remains unchecked. In recent years, cities have expanded into rural areas, while new houses in the countryside continue to encroach on farmland. In addition, the widespread use of automobiles has undeniably made life more convenient, but it has also become a major cause of air pollution and a key driver of the global energy crisis.
When our desires go unchecked, we inevitably draw too much from nature, damaging the environment in the process. In doing so, we not only put our future at risk but also exhaust the blessings of generations to come. Therefore, being content with fewer desires is of great significance to environmental protection.
(3) 少欲知足是修行解脱的助缘
(3) Being Content with Fewer Desires Supports Liberation
On a spiritual path, being content with fewer desires is a living principle we should adhere to. Desires push us to keep chasing external things, preventing the mind from finding true freedom. The more desires we have, the more restlessness and afflictions arise. If left unchecked, desire can cause us to lose both rationality and morality, becoming a major obstacle on the path of cultivation.
“The precepts are the rightful and conducive foundation for liberation.” The Buddha established the precepts to help his disciples eliminate disturbances and settle their minds on cultivation. By living simply, we no longer have to spend our lives on daily survival—food, clothing, shelter, and transportation. Instead, we can devote our time and energy to spiritual practice and the pursuit of truth. Today, people value cost-effectiveness but rarely consider that investing time is, in fact, investing life itself. Shouldn’t we also think about whether our time is well spent and what we truly gain from it?
The less desire we have, the less attachment and fewer obstacles we face on our path of practice. Thus, being content with fewer desires is the basic Buddhist attitude toward material desires. At the same time, we should continuously foster our wholesome desires for the Dharma, aspiring to attain Buddha-nature and liberate all beings. While letting go of personal desires, we should establish an infinite vow of compassion for all beings.
Life and death are eternal topics that we all inevitably face. Today, we can travel through the skies and dive into the depths of the sea, yet we remain helpless in the face of death. Where do we go after death? Does life simply end there? Some say that since we are still alive and death has not yet come, there is no need to care about it; once we are dead, we can no longer think, so there is no need to pursue the truth—such questions, they argue, are nothing but needless worry. But is this really the case? As we are moving closer to the end of life with every passing moment, can we truly be at ease if we know nothing about death? Can we walk the right path in life? When death comes, will we be able to face it calmly? When we look back on our lives, can we do so without regret?
Every day, new lives begin, and others come to an end. Birth and death mark the beginning and end of each lifetime; together they span the whole course of life and are equally important to understand. How we understand them depends on seeing how they are connected to each other.
All living beings share the instinct to stay alive. Even the smallest creatures, like ants, struggle to survive—how much more would human beings long to live? We live in this world seeking greater wealth, pursuing higher status, achieving success in our careers, and fulfilling our dreams. Yet all these pursuits depend on the simple fact that we are alive; without life, they lose all meaning.
In early times, humanity practised fertility worship, sought the alchemists’ dream of immortality, and, even today, strives to preserve health through an endless stream of supplements and wellness practices. All of these reveal our deep fascination with staying alive, for life means hope. A Chinese novelist once wrote, “Life may be the only thing in the universe worthy of worship; its nurturing, giving birth, and growing up are, in essence, profoundly awe‑inspiring.” With life, we can create infinite possibilities. That is why we rejoice at a child’s birth and spare no effort to save lives when faced with illness or disaster. The ancients said, “To save one life is worth more than building a seven‑tiered pagoda.” Yet many who offer help do so not for merit or reward, but from a sincere reverence for life and a refusal to see it fade away.
Yet life is fragile. From the moment we are born, each passing day carries us closer to the end. In youth, we may not yet feel the relentless passage of time, but once we grow old, the fear of death becomes impossible to avoid. As the saying goes, “In old age, each passing year is one less to live.” Every year that slips away is a year we cannot regain; every day that passes brings us one step nearer to the end. When a single breath fails to return, the next belongs to another life. Death is inevitable—everyone is equal and cannot escape. Perhaps that is why so many religions regard it as the ultimate question. We may even say that it is precisely seeking the truth of death that gives birth to religion itself.
Christian faith is built upon the hope of eternal life. It teaches that earthly life is illusory, while heaven is the soul’s eternal destination. Within this faith, eternal life is sanctified, and the death of Jesus is proclaimed as the act of salvation. Through sincere prayer, Christians believe that death can become the gateway to immortality. In the Bible, Jesus proclaimed to his people: “I am the resurrection and the life. The one who believes in me will live, even though they die; and whoever lives by believing in me will never die.” But can Jesus truly grant new life from death? Will this hope for eternal life ultimately be fulfilled?
(2) 佛教只重视死亡吗
(2) Does Buddhism Focus Only on Death?
佛教是如何看待死亡的呢？为什么在人们的感觉中，佛教特别重视死亡？主要是有以下四个原因。
How does Buddhism view death? Why does it seem that Buddhism places special emphasis on death? There are four main reasons.
First, the Buddha was once a prince who enjoyed all worldly pleasures. Yet after witnessing the suffering of aging, sickness, and death, he deeply realized the illusory nature of worldly life and resolutely renounced his royal life and devoted himself to spiritual cultivation. Touched by death, the Buddha inspired to pursue the deathless path, which became his driving force toward liberation. In a sense, this aspiration helped pave the way for the birth of Buddhism. From the very beginning, people have often linked Buddhism with death—sometimes even seeing the two as one.
Second, in the Sravaka practice, the goal is to attain *nirvana* and achieve *Arhatship*. However, many people mistakenly equate nirvana with death, regarding it as the passing of a sage. For example, the Buddha’s passing from this world is referred to as his entering nirvana. This raises the question: “If realizing nirvana is seen as the ultimate aim, does this not imply that Buddhism values death over life?” In fact, nirvana has two aspects—“complete nirvana” and “incomplete nirvana.” At its heart, nirvana means to let go of afflictions and go beyond birth and death. It is not another name for death.
Third, this misunderstanding is tied to the prevalence of Pure Land Buddhism. Since Master Huiyuan founded this sect at Donglin Temple on Mount Lushan during the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Western Pure Land of Ultimate Bliss has become a cherished destination for many Buddhists. What makes this practice exceptional is that it emphasizes reliance on Amitabha Buddha’s vow power, unlike other sects that rely solely on individual effort. Because of this, Pure Land Buddhism has been more accessible to the general public. It became so widespread, particularly in the Ming and Qing dynasties, that “Every household recites Amitābha, every home venerates Avalokiteśvara.” This has led many to believe that the goal of studying Buddhism is solely to seek rebirth in the Pure Land and to hope for a better future life.
Fourth, Buddhist repentance rituals have further deepened this misunderstanding. Since the Yuan Dynasty, such ceremonies have been widespread. Especially in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces, temples are so occupied with performing these services that they almost lose their part to guide the public with Dharma. When people enter temples, they just burn a few sticks of incense and make prostrations. While praying for peace in this life, they also invite monastics to chant sutras and perform rituals when a family member has passed away. They do so in the hope that the deceased will reach a good destination, and to offer consolation to themselves and their loved ones.
For these reasons, many people have come to believe that Buddhism is only concerned with death and serves to care for the deceased. This view makes some sense, but it also shows an incomplete and distorted understanding of Buddhism. Take the Pure Land tradition as an example: although it emphasizes reciting Amitabha Buddha’s name and caring about one’s destination after death, it differs fundamentally from the Christian idea of entering heaven. Pure Land practice is grounded in self-effort, yet supported by reliance on Amitabha’s vows. In other words, other-power only works through self-power. The Amitabha Sutra states that the Western Pure Land is “a gathering place of virtuous people, and those with few virtuous roots, meritorious blessings and other causal conditions cannot attain rebirth in that land.” Clearly, rebirth in the Western Pure Land is not something one attains at will; it requires blessings, virtue, and wholesome roots. Where do such blessings come from? They come from self-cultivation in this human life, which includes the practices of faith, vows, and actions.
What, then, is the correct Buddhist understanding of life and death? It differs from both the materialist belief that death is the end and the idea of eternal life taught by other religions. Although this present life is brief, Buddhism views life as a ceaseless river—with neither beginning nor end. What’s more, life can be transformed through practice. As such, Buddhism first emphasizes the meaning of this present life, and then cares about what comes after death. This focus is reflected in several key aspects.
Other religions regard heaven as the best destination, while Buddhism teaches that the precious human life—especially one blessed with leisure and ability to study the Dharma—is far more precious than being reborn in the heavens. This is because the heavenly beings are only indulged in pleasures, with no time for practice. Yet their happiness does not last forever; once their blessings are exhausted, they still have to wander in samsara.
In contrast, as human beings, we experience both suffering and joy, and naturally wish to be free from suffering and attain happiness. Moreover, we possess the faculty of reason, enabling us to study the Buddha’s teachings, abandon unwholesome actions, and cultivate virtue to transform our lives. This is why Buddhism teaches that truth and wisdom belong to the human realm, not the heavenly realms. Shakyamuni Buddha, our fundamental teacher, attained enlightenment here in the human world—not in a heavenly one.
We all know the idea of living in the present moment, but do deeply we understand its true meaning? Buddhism teaches that life is like a rushing torrent: the past has already gone and cannot be changed, while the future has yet to come and remains unknown. What we truly grasp is only this very moment. But does valuing the present mean we can indulge in pleasures while we can? We must remember that the infinite past finds its end in the now, the endless future begins at this moment. Every thought we give rise to, every word we speak or choose not to, every action or stillness in the present moment shapes our future life. If we wish for a brighter future, we must begin here and now: by clarifying our life’s purpose, cultivating aspiration, and planning wisely for the future. That is, we must know what kind of life we seek and what we should be doing today to realize it.
Many people mistakenly believe that Buddhist practice aims solely for future lives. In fact, Buddhism teaches the principle of “finding joy in the Dharma here and now.” It means we can benefit immediately from practicing Dharma, bringing peace and happiness to both body and mind. Life is an endless journey of accumulation. By practicing Dharma each day, we are continuously enhancing our lives. Students of the Mindful Peace Academy have experienced this deeply for themselves: by following the Approaches of Study and Service to the Public, our afflictions and confusions fade, while our wisdom and compassion continue to grow. Our minds become more open and joyful. These are clear signs that we are moving toward liberation.
What is liberation? It is the gradual process of freeing ourselves from the bonds of ignorance, delusion, and karma, and ultimately from the cycle of birth and death itself. So we do not have to wait until death to experience the benefits of practice. Even now, in daily life, we can experience the joy and freedom that come from Dharma practice. Only when we master ourselves now can we master death when it comes. If we cannot master ourselves now, how could we possibly be free when death comes?
Master Taixu (1890–1947) advocated “Buddhism of Human Life,” emphasizing that “Dharma is the great wisdom of life.” Throughout my years of teaching and spreading the Dharma, I have remained faithful to this vision. By interpreting Buddhist teachings in a more accessible way, I hope to help people apply this wisdom to all aspects of daily life, so that they can truly benefit from it.
In the course of spreading the Dharma, Buddhism has taken on many forms. One is a philosophical Buddhism for the elite, which developed deep and complete schools such as Tiantai, Huayan, Sanlun, and Yogacara. Another is a folk Buddhism for ordinary people. They pray for blessings, pay homage to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and have only a basic understanding of the law of cause and effect. However, many modern practitioners lack the time to study such deep teachings, yet they are not content with simply praying for peace. How can we help them appreciate the extraordinary wisdom of Buddhism and inspire them to take a genuine interest in the practice?
Buddhism of Human Life aims to interpret the Dharma in simple and accessible language, helping us understand life and guide our daily lives with Buddhist wisdom. Although each Buddhist school has its own deep teachings, they all share the same goal—to help us understand life and the world more clearly, and to make us better. In fact, we can understand every problem with Buddhist wisdom, because at the root, all problems in the world are human problems—problems of the mind. Since ancient times, Buddhism has been known as a “study of the mind.” It offers both theory and practice to help us understand our minds and transform them in many ways. Buddhism of Human Life follows this same path, but it begins with real life itself—guiding us to attain liberation through practice in the present moment.
(4) 佛教以解除众生痛苦为使命
(4) Buddhism Aims to Relieve the Suffering of All Beings
As Buddhists, we should not only seek to free ourselves from our own suffering but also care deeply for all sentient beings—seeing their suffering as our own and their needs as our own. Mahayana Buddhism teaches the Six Perfections and the Four Means of Conversion, which serve as skillful means to benefit others. The Six Perfections are generosity, morality, patience, diligence, meditative concentration, and wisdom; the Four Means of Conversion are generosity, kind words, beneficial actions, and collaborative work. All of them begin with generosity, which Buddhism calls cultivating a field of merit. In the world, charity often focuses on relieving poverty and hardship, while in Buddhism generosity goes beyond material giving—it also includes the giving of the Dharma and the giving of fearlessness. This is because people have different forms of suffering, and it cannot be truly resolved by material aid alone.
In his causal stage of practice, the Buddha went through countless lives to liberate sentient beings from suffering. He practiced for the sake of all beings and attained Buddhahood for them. Many believe that paying respects to the Buddha or reciting his name is enough for practice, but they often overlook the importance of helping others. This neglect leads them away from the true spirit of the buddhas and bodhisattvas—to lead all beings toward liberation. To study Buddhism is not only to study what the Buddha taught, but also to live as the Buddha lived.
Buddhist practice includes the Human-Heaven Vehicle, the Sravaka Vehicle, and the Bodhisattva Vehicle. Although its ultimate goal is to guide us toward enlightenment, we must rely on the foundation of the Human-Heaven Vehicle—that is, compassionate care for real life.
Furthermore, the Singalovada Sutra and the Sutra on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action also reflect Buddhist care for real life. Buddhism believes that the fundamental law of the world is “dependent origination and causality.” Our destiny does not depend on any divine will, but on our own actions. The Buddha simply shows us what to do and what not to do, reveals the results of good and evil, and teaches the methods to end suffering and find happiness. Yet transforming our lives relies on our own dedicated practice.
The Buddha attained enlightenment as a human being—he was neither a deity nor a divine messenger. Christianity teaches that humans were created by God, and their fate is completely in his hands. Buddhism, however, teaches that the difference between ordinary beings and buddhas lies only in a single thought—between delusion and awakening. Each of us can start right now, improving ourselves through practice and uncovering our innate Buddha-nature. The Buddha taught for forty-five years to help all beings attain happiness in this life, happiness in future lives, and the joy of ultimate liberation. Therefore, Buddhism first focuses on the present happiness of all beings. It further encourages us to make full use of this precious human life as a vessel of practice, allowing our lives to move toward awakening.
3. 佛教重视死后归宿
3. Buddhism Emphasizes One’s Destination After Death
Buddhism cares not only about real life, but also about the contemplation of death and what comes after. Without such reflection, people easily become obsessed with pursuing worldly fame and fortune, completely forgetting that death is inevitable. When death comes, many find themselves completely unprepared and unable to accept it. Some become distressed, feeling life is unfair; some feel lost and helpless, not knowing what to do; still others suffer greatly from desperate medical efforts. This is especially true for young and middle-aged people, for they are busy with thriving careers and full of future plans. Yet when death suddenly comes, everything comes to an end. Faced with this, they are unwilling to let go of what they have and deeply cling to life, while feeling fearful and uncertain about where they will go after death. They do not wish to die, yet cannot avoid it. Only then may they begin to understand why ancient wisdom regarded a “good death” as one of life’s Five Blessings.
Death is life’s greatest trial—the final test we all must face. Whether we can pass it successfully depends on the effort we put into daily practice. By constantly contemplating death, we learn to view life through its lens, allowing us to make wiser choices, instead of being caught up in temporary gains and losses. We come to see what is fleeting, like mist that quickly passes, and what truly matters and must be firmly held. In this regard, Buddhism offers two approaches: one is to cultivate the right mindset by contemplating death; the other is to provide end-of-life care to help the dying maintain right mindfulness at their final moment.
(1) 通过念死珍惜人身，策励修行
(1) Contemplating Death to Cherish Life and Inspire Diligent Practice
Master Yinguang (1861–1940), a renowned patriarch of the Pure Land School, hung the Chinese character “death” on the wall of his room to remind himself: “Practice urgently and diligently, as if your head were on fire.” This is because people are easily deceived by illusion of life. Since we did not die the day before, nor yesterday, nor today, we begin to feel as if we will live forever. It seems we still have plenty of time to practice, so there is no need to hurry. But the truth is, death can come at any moment.
Which is closer—tomorrow or death? No one can say for sure. The Precious Garland tells us, “Human life, surrounded by the causes of death, is like an oil lamp flickering in the wind.” Life is short and fragile, like a flame that can be blown out at any moment by the winds of karma. Especially in this Dharma-ending age, beings are born with short lives and little merit. The causes of death are many, while the causes of life are few. The Buddha also reminds us: “Human life hangs by a single breath. If one breath does not come, the next breath belongs to the next life.” The purpose of contemplating death is to help us realize how rare and precious this human life is, and how fortunate we are to encounter the Dharma—so we make the most of this opportunity to practice diligently while we can.
Countdowns are common in modern life. For example, in China, the countdown to the national college entrance exam often begins a year in advance. The idea is to turn pressure into motivation, so that students won’t dare to slack off. In fact, contemplating death is life’s ultimate countdown. The pressure it brings is even greater, because we do not know how much time we have left. All we know is this: with each day that passes, there is one day less. Have you made it count?
Life is short. But have we made good use of these few decades? “When we are young, our hearts are bound to our parents; in middle age, to our spouse and children; and in old age, to our grandchildren.” The little time we leave for ourselves is often spent chasing fame and fortune. Only when death comes do we realize: the wealth and status we gave up our lives for, the loved ones we gave our hearts to—none can save us. Even this body that has accompanied us day and night cannot be taken with us.
A revered ancient master once said,“When we realize how precious it is to have the time and ability to practice, we regret wasting it on meaningless pursuits. When we understand how rare it is to obtain a human body, we regret living carelessly. And when we realize death is certain and its timing is unpredictable, we refuse to engage in anything that hinders a good death or goes against the Dharma.” Only by contemplating death can we give rise to true detachment from the world; only through such detachment can we awaken a genuine aspiration for the Dharma. Guided by the Dharma, we learn to make wise choices at every stage of life and to live each moment fully. Whether we are on or off the meditation cushion—listening to teachings, working, or carrying out our daily lives—our minds can remain in harmony with wholesome Dharma.
Buddhism places great importance on end-of-life care, which holds profound meaning in two key respects. For the dying person, the ability to remain mindful in their final moments is crucial. It determines whether they can receive Amitabha Buddha’s compassionate guidance and attain rebirth in the Pure Land, directly shaping their future destiny. Although such mindfulness depends largely on one’s lifelong cultivation, when death comes, they face great challenges. At that moment, the physical body undergoes the disintegration of the four great elements—earth, water, fire, and wind, bringing intense physical and mental suffering. At the same time, the past karma may manifest, disturbing the mind and obstructing rebirth in the Pure Land. As a result, a lifelong practice may fail to bear fruit at this final moment.
For volunteers, end‑of‑life care is a precious opportunity to strengthen their own practice and embody the *bodhisattva* spirit. As ordinary beings, we can easily become numb; merely reflecting on death in theory may soon lose its power. This is why we must continually contemplate and deepen our awareness. Taking part in end‑of‑life care is a vivid, living reminder that death is always near—we never know when it will come for us. If we are not fully prepared, what state of mind will we have when death comes? And where will we go after we die? Are we truly ready?
So, Buddhism values both this present life and the life to come. This life is the foundation for practice—we must seize the opportunity to listen to the Dharma and cultivate diligently. But this life is short, and the path within samsara is full of dangers; even a small misstep can make us fall into the lower realms. That is why we must also care about our destination after death—whether to attain rebirth in the Pure Land, free from regression, or to return to the Saha world through the power of our aspirations, making it the starting point for our next life of practice. Contemplating death serves as a bridge between these two aims: it helps us cherish life more deeply and prepare for what lies ahead, so that when the final moment comes, we can meet it with calm acceptance—at peace, as if returning home.
As members of society, we all have responsibilities, and Buddhists are no exception. Unfortunately, many people still regard Buddhists as selfish. They believe that monastics leave their families to live a life of ease, and say that neglect their parents’ kindness, fail to fulfill family responsibilities, and show no care about the suffering of the world. Although this view has eased in recent years with the growing spread of Dharma, it remains difficult to change at its root. When someone chooses the monastic path, do their parents see it as an act of ingratitude or of gratitude? Does society view it as an act of taking responsibility, or escaping it? Ultimately, are Buddhists pursuing their own benefit, or the benefit of others? To answer this question, we must first understand what benefit truly means.
Although people strive for different goals in life, they all seek benefit. As the Chinese saying goes, “The world bustles for profit; the world hustles for gain.” On a basic level, people rely on basic materials to survive. In ancient times, people made what they needed themselves and exchanged goods through bartering; today, it involves industrial production and the trade of goods, all aimed at acquiring and exchanging benefits. On a broader level, personal status, power, and honor, as well as a nation’s resources, territory, and sovereignty, are all forms of benefit. In short, anything that satisfies one’s desires can be called a benefit. The pursuit of benefit has run throughout human history—it has driven social progress and improved living standards.
As Buddhists, we cannot avoid the topic of benefit. Even monastics, who do not engage in productive labor, still rely on the four requisites: food, clothing, bedding, and medicine. That’s why people say, “The Dharma wheel turns only after the food wheel spins.” A monastery has two primary responsibilities: first, to safeguard an environment where monastics can fully devote themselves to spiritual practice; and second, to share the Dharma with the wider community. Both require proper facilities and steady support.
Beyond material gain, Buddhism often speaks of the benefits of the Dharma—both immediate and ultimate. The Buddha frequently reminded his disciples that while seeking their own benefit, they should also work for the well-being of others, so that more sentient beings might also benefit from the Dharma. Thus, Buddhism does not shy away from discussing benefit; rather, it regards benefit as closely connected with our life. So, how should we understand the true meaning of benefit?
When we speak of benefit, we must also speak of desire and morality. If desire is the driving force behind our pursuit of benefit, then morality is what sets its boundaries. Desire is endless, so is the pursuit of benefit. Without moral restraint, this pursuit can quickly spin out of control, leading to all sorts of problems, and even crime. The harm caused by a profit-driven mindset is everywhere in today’s world. In one way or another, we have all become its victims, and often, directly or indirectly, those who cause harm. So, are benefit and morality really at odds with each other, and do we have to choose one at the expense of the other?
As early as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770BCE – 221BCE), there were already debates about morality and benefit. The Analects says, “The noble person is guided by morality; the petty person is driven by gain.” This sets morality and benefit in opposition—linking morality with the noble person, and benefit with the petty person. Furthermore, in The Mencius, King Hui of Liang asked Mencius, who had come from afar, how he could benefit his state. Mencius replied that if rulers thought only of benefit, conflicts among states would only deepen. He advocated governing by moral principle, saying: “Why must Your Majesty speak of benefit? Benevolence and morality are all that matter.” In this way, morality and benefit came to be seen as opposing forces.
In the context of Confucian culture, people place great importance on morality. But when morality and self-interest are seen as opposites, it implies that to pursue morality, one must give up self-interest. This creates a dilemma: some people care deeply about their own interests, yet also wish to uphold a virtuous image. As a result, they become hypocrites—saying one thing and doing another.
So, must morality and benefit really be mutually exclusive? Buddhism teaches that the key lies in how we seek benefit. If we seek self-interest in dishonest ways, morality and benefit do become opposing forces—virtue is lost, and whatever we gain will not last. But if we follow moral principles and pursue wealth through ethical and lawful means, there is no conflict between the two. In fact, benefits grounded in morality will continue to grow.
For example, in business, if we act with integrity, show kindness, consider others’ interests, and strive for mutual benefit, others will naturally be willing to build long-term cooperation with us. Ancient Chinese valued honest business—offering genuine goods at fair prices and deceiving neither the old nor the young—for only in this way could one win the trust of others. All of the time-honored brands that have survived to this day, both in both China and abroad, are all models of honest business. By acting with honesty, they have not only earned social recognition but also found the very path to prosperity. This is truly a win-win for both benefit and morality, for success in business and growth in character. It brings benefit to ourselves and others—now and in times to come.
In short, morality and benefit are not opposites, but interdependent and mutually enhancing. Morality provides the guiding principles for pursuing benefit, while benefit is the fruit of moral practice. Only by pursuing benefit with morality at heart can that benefit truly last.
We know that the Buddha once gave up his royal throne to seek enlightenment. Among Buddhist practitioners, monastics must renounce all possessions, and even some lay followers choose to give up their careers to devote themselves to the practice. As a result, some people believe that Buddhism does not value benefit, and even rejects it. But is that really true?
First, Buddhism does not reject the pursuit of rightful benefit. Especially for lay practitioners, wealth earned through lawful means and diligent work is called pure wealth in the sutras. Such wealth can meet one’s needs while serving as a means to benefit others and cultivate virtue. The key is that it must follow both the law and the precepts.
In addition to tangible material benefits, Buddhism also emphasizes the benefits of virtuous deeds and the intangible wealth of merit. Virtuous deeds are those that benefit not only oneself but also others, not only in the present but also in the future. The wealth of merit, often called Dharma wealth, stems from Buddhist practice. In the Diamond Sutra,The Buddha uses seven comparisons to illustrate the greatness of this merit: “Suppose a person offers heaps of the seven treasures equal to all the Sumeru mountains within a three thousandfold world system; and if another person were to accept, uphold, recite, or explain just four lines of verse from this sutra , the merit of the latter surpasses that of the former by hundreds of thousands, millions, and billions, and beyond—far beyond what any calculation or analogy could express.” Simply put, reciting and practicing the Diamond Sutra brings greater benefits than any form of material giving. Similar teachings also appear in other Buddhist texts, such as The Practices and Vows of *Samantabhadra* Bodhisattva and the Original Vows of Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva Sutra.
Wisdom holds greater value than material wealth. Material gain is limited; even with immense wealth, one cannot guarantee a life free from worries or find true happiness. But a person with wisdom can remain free, peaceful and joyful in any situation. Wisdom brings not only present peace and joy, but also the ultimate happiness, along with all worldly and transcendent merits. When we understand this, we can truly grasp the benefits described in the Diamond Sutra.
Moreover, while Buddhism encourages the pursuit of benefit, it also teaches us not to cling to it. This reflects what Diamond Sutra teaches—that true giving is free from the three forms of clinging. First, not clinging to the giver—one should give without feeling proud or superior. Second, not clinging to the receiver—showing neither love nor hate, closeness nor distance, but treating everyone equally. Third, not clinging to the gift itself—not worrying about whether it is expensive or cheap, but giving freely to those in need. Only giving in this spirit is truly complete. Not clinging to the benefits does not mean there is no benefit. On the contrary, because we do not cling to benefits, the benefits become boundless—beyond anything we can imagine.
Many people view Buddhists as detached from the world—focused solely on personal practice and indifferent to society. However, this view is one-sided. In fact, Buddhism has two main paths: *Theravada* and Mahayana, also known as the Sravaka Vehicle and the Bodhisattva Vehicle. The word “vehicle” refers to a means of transportation. The Sravaka Vehicle is like a small boat—meant for individual crossing, and focused on personal liberation. The Bodhisattva Vehicle, by contrast, is like a great ship—able to carry all beings to the other shore, benefiting both oneself and others. This difference lies primarily in their aspirations. Because their aspirations differ, the beings they can benefit also differ.
Sravaka practitioners give rise to the mind of renunciation, “seeing the three realms as a burning house and viewing birth and death as enemies.” Their goal is to quickly attain nirvana and free themselves from samsara. This is why they are sometimes called “self-deliverers,” as if they care only about their own liberation and ignore the world’s suffering. In fact, they also cultivate the Four Immeasurables—loving-kindness, compassion, joy, and equanimity. Even today, in Theravada Buddhist countries, the monastic community remains closely connected with society and actively engage in spreading the Dharma and benefiting others. The reason they are seen as more self-focused is that, compared to the bodhisattva path, they do not see altruism as an unshakable responsibility, nor do they aspire to benefit all beings in endless future lives. However, we should keep in mind that this form of self‑benefit is very different from the selfishness that people generally understand.
Practitioners of the bodhisattva path not only cultivate renunciation and eliminate afflictions, but also generate bodhicitta—an altruistic mission to benefit all beings. This altruistic aspiration is limitless: it extends across all directions and endures throughout the infinite future. In a sense, bodhicitta is both the extension and the perfection of renunciation.
Self-benefit means protecting one’s own interests, while altruism is about caring for the well-being of others. Many people see these two as opposites. They believe that helping others must come at the cost of one’s own interests, and that pursuing one’s own benefit inevitably harms others’ benefit. But are self-benefit and altruism truly in opposition?
From a social perspective, rightful self-benefit can also benefit others. For instance, our survival today depends on the work of others, while our own work, in turn, supports many others. Whatever our occupation, we rely on one another and share in each other’s well‑being. Even the idea of win‑win reflects this same unity of benefiting oneself and benefiting others.
However, for some, self-benefit means maximizing profits at any cost, even through dishonest or harmful means. Strictly speaking, this is not self-benefit but selfishness. Such actions harm others, directly or indirectly, and create unwholesome karma that leads to one’s own future suffering. If we lose our morality for the sake of profit, that loss is far greater than any physical harm, for while the body’s lifespan is limited, the seeds of negative actions will continue to bear fruit in the future. Therefore, selfishness can never lead to true self-benefit; on the contrary, it harms oneself now and in the future.
To truly benefit ourselves, we must possess great wisdom; without it, things often turn out the opposite of what we want. We may think that we’re acting for our own good—making careful plans and calculations—yet end up bringing ourselves even more trouble. This happens because our lives are governed by greed, anger, and ignorance, as well as by wrong views and chaotic emotions. As a result, we often make wrong rather than right choices.
Because people are attached to the “self,” they further cling to their money, career, and family, making themselves the center of everything. They seek whatever benefits themselves, even at the cost of others’ well-being. This is why we see intrigue in politics and deception in business. Even within the so‑called “ivory tower” of schools, there are open and hidden struggles for titles and projects. All of these leave the mind restless and far from peace.
Some say, “As long as I do not harm anyone, that’s enough. Why should I benefit others?” Although they are well-off, they spend their days wasting their blessings, squandering money and chasing after pleasure. Or they take joy in hoarding money—thereby losing the true value of wealth. Such behaviors, while seemingly safeguarding personal interests, actually leave them spiritually empty. They constantly fear being taken advantage of, worry about gains and losses, and ultimately become weighed down by their wealth.
(3) 菩萨一心利他，得大自在
(3) By Benefiting Others, Bodhisattvas Attain Great Freedom
The *Lamrim* teaches that “Self-attachment is the gateway to all decline, while altruism forms the foundation of all merit.” Esteemed Master Tsongkhapa illustrates this with two examples. Since beginningless time, sentient beings have been preoccupied only with themselves, thereby creating endless delusion and suffering. In contrast, buddhas and bodhisattvas devote themselves to benefiting others—and through this selflessness, they perfect their own compassion and wisdom. This clearly shows that selfishness does not truly bring true benefit; only selflessness does.
Everything we do for others contributes to our own path to awakening. This requires us to let go of self-attachment and embrace all beings with a selfless heart. We must take their needs as our inescapable responsibility, fulfilling the bodhisattva aspiration: “Not seeking happiness for myself, but wishing all beings to be free from suffering.”
There was once a saying: “Never seek personal gain, only benefit others.” It was held up as the highest moral standard in China. But in Buddhism, benefiting oneself and benefiting others are seen as one. What Buddhism rejects is selfishness—not self-benefit.
First, altruism must be grounded in self-benefit. Helping others requires both wisdom and ability. Without them, we may not only fail to truly help but also trigger afflictions in others and become entangled ourselves—like “a clay bodhisattva crossing a river, unable even to save itself.” This is why Buddhism emphasizes not just compassion, but even more so, wisdom. Without the guidance of wisdom, compassion driven solely by emotion, what we might call blind or excessive compassion, may end up benefiting neither oneself nor others. Therefore, bodhicitta, the aspiration to benefit others, must be rooted in the mind of renunciation, the aspiration to free oneself from samsara. Only with this foundation can we remain detached while helping others, clearly discern causes and conditions, and bring them real benefit.
Second, the highest form of self-benefit must be realized through benefiting others. As The Practices and Vow of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva teaches: “All sentient beings are the roots of the tree, and all buddhas and bodhisattvas are its flowers and fruits. By benefiting sentient beings with the water of great compassion, the wisdom flowers and fruits of the buddhas and bodhisattvas are thereby brought to fulfillment.” This teaches us that without benefiting others, we cannot achieve great compassion or attain Buddhahood.
Compassion and wisdom are the two core pillars of the bodhisattva path. Commonly, it is believed that altruism can foster compassion, while wisdom can only be attained through the practice of emptiness. In fact, altruism can also help dissolve self-attachment and develop wisdom. Self-attachment arises from a mistaken notion of self, which we continuously repeat and strengthen, until we lose touch with our true nature. Overcoming this self-attachment is the most difficult part of Buddhist practice. For many practitioners, relying solely on emptiness meditation may not be enough. By engaging in purely altruistic actions, we can gradually reduce self‑attachment as we benefit others.
In this sense, benefiting others is the ultimate form of benefiting ourselves. This is the method of practice that buddhas and bodhisattvas have revealed to us after their profound realizations. When we are self-centered, we neither truly benefit ourselves nor others. Take the parent-child relationship for example. Some parents spoil their children, unintentionally nurturing their bad habits, while others create tension, leading to poor communication. Both outcomes arise from a lack of wisdom—focusing on personal feelings rather than understanding the needs of others. The same principle applies to charitable activities. Without wisdom, even good intentions may leave one powerless to act and may even create new problems for society.
In summary, Buddhism advocates for a harmonious integration of self-benefit and altruism, grounded in wisdom and compassion. Without wisdom, we cannot truly benefit ourselves, let alone others. Without compassion, at most we might help others occasionally, but would not take it as an inescapable responsibility. Only with a vast altruistic mind can we ultimately achieve self-benefit. This is why, after attaining profound wisdom, the Buddha also perfected great compassion; having accomplished self-benefit, he further benefited all beings, and thus attained supreme perfect enlightenment.
六、出世还是入世（照禅初翻，观轩法师审）
VI. Transcending the World or Engaging with the World
Traditionally, monasteries were seen as secluded places, away from worldly affairs. Renouncing the household life was viewed as cutting ties with the world, leaving loved ones behind. Chan poems have conveyed the idea of coolness and tranquility, such as “In the ancient woods where no path bears human trace, from deep within the mountains—whence comes the sounding bell?” and “The winding path leads to a secluded place, where the Chan adobe is surrounded by flowers and trees.” These descriptions gave the impression that monasteries and monks were beyond this world. However, in today’s Buddhist community, many monasteries are actively engaging in Dharma propagation, charitable work, cultural activities, and other endeavors that are vibrant, diverse, and aligned with contemporary trends. These efforts extend to various fields, including business, the arts, and psychology, exerting significant influence on society. From this perspective, monasteries serve as educational institutions, offering wisdom on life and methods for cultivating the mind to the public. So, are monastics truly transcending the world or engaging with it?
Before delving into this question, it is essential to first understand what Buddhism means by the term “shi jie (world).” According to the Surangama Sutra, “Shi refers to the flow of time, and jie refers to spatial directions.” The flow of time includes past, present, and future, while spatial directions consist of east, west, south, north, southeast, northeast, southwest, northwest, as well as up and down. Together, these are known as the ten directions and three periods of time. As this makes clear, the “world” refers to time and space.
When we talk about the world, we usually refer to the Earth. However, in Buddhist sutras, the number of worlds is as countless as the grains of sand in the Ganges River, immeasurable and infinite. The world we live in, known as the Saha World, consists of the Desire Realm, the Form Realm, and the Formless Realm. The sentient beings here include celestial beings, humans, asuras, hell beings, hungry ghosts, and animals, known as the Six Forms of Beings. Most of them belong to the Desire Realm, with some celestial beings residing in the Form Realm and the Formless Realm.
The world perceived by sentient beings depends on their cognitive capacity. For humans, this refers to the Six Sense Faculties and the Six Consciousnesses: what the eyes see, the ears hear, the nose smells, the tongue tastes, the body feels, and the mind perceives. In other words, we can only perceive the world within the scope of our own perception. Yet what we know through our sense faculties is very limited and does not represent the true reality of the world.
For instance, the world we saw in our youth was certainly different from how we see it now, as our capacity for cognition has changed. In addition, differences in education, professions, and life experiences all influence the depth and breadth of how we understand the world. The ancients said, “Read ten thousand books and travel ten thousand miles,” as two ways to broaden one’s horizons and deepen one’s understanding of the world as much as possible.
Our attitude towards the world is commonly known as our worldview. Many people think this concept is somewhat abstract—a philosophical issue that seems unrelated to real life. In fact, this attitude directly influences our choices and actions, as what we say and do does not occur without reason but is rooted in our thoughts and understanding. Ultimately, it all comes down to our views on life, the world, and values. While the three views emphasize different aspects, they are fundamentally consistent. If our understanding is flawed, it may lead to wrong choices and inappropriate actions. Therefore, having a correct worldview is essential.
那么，大众对世界的态度是怎样的呢？下面介绍两种比较有代表性的观点。
So, what are the prevailing attitudes towards the world among the public? Below are two representative viewpoints.
Ordinary people are full of greed and attachment to the world. First and foremost is the attachment to the self, which is also humanity’s greatest attachment. Following this are the attachments to wealth, status, family, relationships, and everything we possess. In Buddhism, these are known as “the self” and “what belongs to the self.”
After attaining enlightenment, the Buddha realized that everything in the world is a mere illusion arising from various causes and conditions. Things come into being when conditions are present and cease when conditions are absent, as expressed in the teaching: “All phenomena arise due to causes and conditions, and all phenomena perish due to causes and conditions.” The concept of “self” is likewise merely an aggregation of the Five Aggregates—form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. However, due to ignorance, ordinary beings cling to various non-self things as the self, such as the body or social identity. In reality, these things only have a temporary connection to us.
Why do we identify these aspects as the “self”? Because we have lost ourselves, we grasp at everything around us; and because we do not understand our true nature, we seek various substitutes and mistake them for the real “me.” After establishing the “self,” we feel the need to seek further support—wealth, relationships, family, and social connections—clinging to everything connected to the “self” as “mine.” Once this identification is established, attachment arises, leading to a deep dependence.
Since these things represent the “self,” they are considered very important. Once lost, the “self” is affected and may even collapse entirely, which is why we wish for everything related to us to remain unchanged. However, the world is impermanent, and this truth continually challenges our assumptions, revealing that everything is temporary and must undergo the process of arising, abiding, decaying, and emptying. These changes are natural, much like the transition from spring to autumn or the blooming and withering of flowers. Yet, because we cling to the illusion of permanence, we fear loss, become anxious, and lack a sense of security. This is the attachment, fear, and upside-down, dream-like thinking referred to in the Heart Sutra.
In this world, births, deaths, accidents, or even disasters occur every moment, yet these events may not necessarily affect us much. What can influence us are the things related to us, especially those we are attached to. The more we are attached to, the greater the chance of being affected; the stronger the attachment, the deeper the afflictions it brings.
The opposite of greed is apathy—a state of losing interest in anything. For example, the “dispirited culture” that has become popular in recent years refers to young people being aimless, hopeless, and living in a state of decadence and numbness. Why has this subculture gradually become widespread and even turned into a societal malaise of our times?
First, chasing after the Five Desires is exhausting. Once indulgence exceeds what we truly need, it brings both physical and mental burdens. As Laozi said, “The five colors blind our eyes. The five notes deafen our ears. The five flavors deaden our palates. The chase and hunt madden our hearts.” In today’s era of material abundance, people are stimulated by material pleasures on one hand, yet are also fatigued by excessive stimulation on the other. Second, the rising standard of living in modern society has brought about increasing pressure for survival. Due to intense competition, many people face repeated setbacks in life and work, unable to attain what they desire, often leading them to the other extreme. Third, some people are high-minded by nature. Seeing the impurities of the world, they keep a distance from society in order to protect themselves, unwilling to go with the current. Fourth, seeing the absurdity of the world and the illusory nature of life, some people feel that nothing is meaningful to pursue, so they lose interest and even struggle to find a reason to live.
其实这两种态度古已有之，只是在今天表现得特别突出而已。
In fact, these two attitudes have existed since ancient times, but they have become particularly apparent today.
So, how do other religions view the world? In the West, Christianity teaches that the material world is temporary and illusory, with heaven as its eternal destination. People should believe in God and perform good deeds to secure their place in heaven and attain eternal life.
In India, within the Eastern tradition, Brahmanism has a history of over 3,000 years and later evolved into Hinduism, which remains a major religion today. Additionally, there are various other religions. During the Buddha’s lifetime, there were 96 different non-Buddhist schools of thought. These religions have diverse practices and spiritual experiences, but they primarily focus on the cycle of samsara and the path to liberation. On one hand, they provide explanations for samsara, and on the other hand, they propose methods for achieving liberation. These religions generally view the world as full of suffering and illusion, leading to a sense of detachment from worldly life.
The monastic system in Buddhism leads many to view Buddhism as renouncing the world. After all, why would one renounce worldly pleasures and pursuits? In many literary works, the reasons for taking monastic vows are often attributed to career setbacks or emotional distress. While such cases do exist, judging Buddhism as world-weary based solely on this perspective is one-sided.
True ordination is never a reluctant escape after encountering setbacks, but rather a proactive transcendence upon seeing the true nature of the world. Worldly individuals, due to ignorance and karmic delusion, live immersed in the habits of greed, anger, and delusion. These are the three major viruses of the inner world, which have long become the dominant forces of life, continually generating suffering, birth and death, and the cycle of samsara. Renunciation is a responsibility for one’s future life—a commitment to liberate oneself from ignorance and attain enlightenment. To achieve this, one must let go of attachment, eliminate disturbances, and devote oneself to diligent practice. This requires immense wisdom and courage.
The ancients said: “Becoming a monk is a truly heroic act beyond the capability of generals and ministers.” This is because generals and ministers merely need to conquer external enemies, while ordination requires overcoming our own worldly habits. The greatest opponent in life is not others but ourselves. To achieve this goal, we must endure what ordinary people cannot endure and accomplish what ordinary people cannot accomplish. Especially in today’s era of rampant material desires, where temptations are everywhere, spiritual practice is more challenging than ever before.
But we must understand that “letting go” in Buddhism means freeing the mind from attachment, not rejecting the world or cutting off our relationship with it. Instead, it is about attaining a state of transcendence, as expressed in the saying: “Dwell in the world as if in empty space, like a lotus untouched by water.” This shows that the fundamental difference between renunciation and pessimism toward life lies in their nature: transcendence is proactive and positive, while cynicism is passive and negative.
以出世心做入世事
Engage in Worldly Affairs with a Transcendent Mind
For Mahayana Buddhists, it is essential to cultivate not just the mind of renunciation but also Bodhicitta; not only to attain wisdom and eliminate afflictions, but also to develop loving-kindness and compassion to liberate countless beings. “Loving-kindness” means giving happiness—when sentient beings lack joy, bodhisattvas help them to obtain happiness. “Compassion” means removing suffering—when beings are submerged in an ocean of misery, bodhisattvas help to free them from suffering.
Bodhisattvas not only cultivate loving-kindness and compassion but also strive to achieve the great loving-kindness and great compassion exemplified by Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva. Everyone possesses some degree of loving-kindness and compassion, which is why we often take the practice of compassion lightly, thinking it is neither challenging nor as attractive as meditation practices. In fact, the cultivation of compassion is not easy, and the real challenge lies in its “greatness.” How great must it be? It must extend to all sentient beings without exception—there is no being who is not embraced by the bodhisattva’s compassion. As long as there remains even one sentient being you are unwilling to help, your compassion has not yet reached perfection.
Of course, this does not mean that bodhisattvas can save all sentient beings from suffering. Because helping sentient beings requires the right causes and conditions; even if bodhisattvas are committed to benefiting others, the other party may not be willing, or other essential conditions may not be available. Therefore, the key lies in whether we can cultivate compassion for all sentient beings. This is a subjective factor and also a standard for evaluating our spiritual practice. Another expression of great loving-kindness and great compassion is “unconditional great loving-kindness and compassion of shared unity.” “Unconditional” means treating all sentient beings equally, without distinctions of closeness or distance. “Shared unity” means seeing all sentient beings and oneself as one, with no separation between self and others.
Such compassion arises from the wisdom of emptiness. The bodhisattvas, understanding that all phenomena are illusory and transient, and that there is no “self” or “mine,” are able to cultivate a vast, pure, and untainted compassion for all beings. Only with this understanding can we deeply feel the oneness of ourselves and others, and thus give our utmost effort to help others, but without attachment to the concepts of “self” or “beings.” The Diamond Sutra teaches that bodhisattvas vow to liberate all sentient beings, whether born from womb, egg, moisture, or transformation; whether they have form or no form, have thought or no thought, or neither thought nor non-thought—all are beings whom the bodhisattvas seek to liberate. Yet within the bodhisattva’s mind, there is truly no being that is liberated. This means that while the bodhisattvas seek to liberate innumerable beings, they remain unattached to the form of “beings.” Without such realization, we can easily be swayed by worldly phenomena.
Therefore, benefiting sentient beings requires two essential points. On one hand, we must cultivate a pure aspiration—not acting for fame, recognition, or any other personal goal, but purely for the purpose of helping others. On the other hand, we must possess wisdom—although we help sentient beings wholeheartedly, the mind remains detached, free from the forms of self, the one being helped, and the act of helping itself. Only by achieving this level of understanding can we practice complete Bodhisattva conduct, which has no negative consequences. Otherwise, even though we may be engaging in altruistic deeds, we might find ourselves distressed, struggling, and unable to sustain our efforts. This is precisely the fundamental difference between the Bodhisattva’s conduct and worldly charity.
Therefore, a Buddhist practitioner should understand the illusory nature of all conditioned phenomena and maintain a transcendent mind, while also having boundless compassion for all beings and actively engaging in the world to help others. Without a transcendent state of mind, when we engage with the world, we are easily tainted by the Five Desires and Six Dusts, becoming entangled in attachment and unable to free ourselves. Without a mind of engagement in the world, we cannot practice the compassion of the Bodhisattva Path or embody the true spirit of Mahayana Buddhism.
Buddhism refers to humans as “sentient beings,” meaning that we are living creatures with consciousness and emotions. All animals fall under this category. Emotion is one of the most fundamental aspects of the human mind, and has remained an enduring theme throughout the history of art. From literature to music, painting, and sculpture, people have used countless forms to express emotions. Even monumental buildings are imbued with such function. Across all times and cultures, even when languages differ and backgrounds vary, we can still appreciate works of art and feel a deep sense of resonance and inspiration. This is because the emotions they contain are universal, shared beyond the limits of time and space.
Ancient Chinese people valued “cognition,” “emotion,” and “intention.” Cognition refers to thought and understanding; emotion to feelings and affections; and intention to volition and determination. In modern society, a person’s success is often associated with their intelligence quotient (IQ) and willpower. However, it soon became evident that emotional intelligence (EQ) plays a more significant role. Some individuals may possess high IQ and strong will, yet struggle in interpersonal relationships. This lack of EQ can create many obstacles in their career and personal development. EQ is the ability to understand and manage emotions. Those who possess this skill are able to interact with others in a harmonious way, bringing warmth and joy to those around them.
Regarding emotion, we often speak of the “seven emotions and six desires” in China. The seven emotions refer to the primary emotional states of joy, anger, sorrow, fear, love, hatred, and desire. On this matter, Confucianism, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Buddhism are largely similar. The six desires arise from the six sense faculties—the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind—and represent the physical and mental cravings connected with them. These also belong to the broader sense of emotion. Emotion is not only an important part of our life—bringing both delight and sorrow—but also plays a crucial role in the cycle of birth and death. As the saying goes: “Without deep emotion, one would not be born into this Saha world; without deep attachment, one would not fall into the cycle of rebirth.”
Moreover, emotions differ according to their object. The first type is our affection for material possessions and living environments. We often develop emotional attachments to the things we own or the places we live—not only to the objects themselves, but also to the feelings they evoke. This emotional tendency has two aspects: the desire for the new and the attachment to the old. The pursuit of novelty is self-evident, for it is instinctive for most people. Yet many are drawn to what is old. That is why people love collecting antique objects, and why the feelings tied to one’s hometown have been recorded and cherished in countless ways since ancient times.
The second type of emotion arises in human relationships, including familial love, friendship, and romantic love. Familial love is rooted in blood ties; it forms naturally as one enters the world and is often the most stable and enduring of all emotions—a reality captured in the saying that family bonds run deep. Friendship refers to the emotional bond between companions. It can be the innocent camaraderie of childhood friends, the connection between those who share common ideals, the deep and unexpected friendship across generations, or the rare meeting of spirits in perfect harmony—like the ancient tale of the musician who found his true confidant in one who understood his tune. As for romantic love, it is often the most intense and yet the most changeable of all emotions. It has been a central theme in literature, art, and film across cultures and eras, and remains one important experience in human life.
Emotion forms the very fabric of worldly life. In establishing various emotions, people also develop deep attachments, leading to countless entanglements of joy and sorrow, union and separation, love and hatred.
佛教怎么看待情爱
2. How Does Buddhism View Love?
在佛教看来，情有以下几个特点。
From the Buddhist perspective, emotional attachment has several defining characteristics.
The first is delusion, a form of ignorance or the inability to see things clearly. The expression “infatuated affection” captures this well, for delusion leaves no room for reason. As the saying goes, “Love arises from no clear source, yet once it takes hold, it runs deep.” Throughout history, countless men and women have suffered immensely—some even to the point of ruin—all for the sake of love. Such emotions are built upon the deluded mind. Without wisdom, it is difficult to see the truth behind these feelings. And if one is unwilling to awaken, even the guidance of others is hard to accept.
The second is greed, marked by attachment. Whether it is towards romantic partners, family members, or friends, loving someone naturally creates a need to be loved in return. When you say “I love you,” you are, in effect, also saying, “You must love me too.” The more emotions you invest, the higher the needs and expectations that arise. This is true in romantic relationships as well as in the bond between parents and their children. Love becomes a form of bondage because attachment acts like glue, binds people together.
As we continuously invest emotions into relationships, our attachment grows, and so does our need for love. When you hold a measure of love for someone, the mind generates a measure of need. With ten measures of love, it generates ten measures of need; with a hundred measures of love, it generates a hundred measures of need. These needs must be met through the other person’s response in order to feel fulfilled and balanced. However, the more intense the need becomes, the less likely it is to be reciprocated in equal measure. When there is a growing gap between what is given and what is received, suffering naturally follows.
The third is self-attachment, a sense of possession that arises from the self. This is especially evident in parental love for children and romantic love between partners, where affection can easily give rise to possessiveness and a desire to control. Such control is a major threat to the health of relationships and a direct cause of suffering. Attempts to control others can provoke resistance and rebellion, leading to conflict. Furthermore, the fear of losing someone can generate various negative emotions, including anxiety, fear, and delusive thoughts. When such relationships change, feelings of betrayal can easily trigger anger. Such tragedies in which love turns into hatred have already occurred far too often in this world.
When the Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, he realized that the continuation of life is governed by the Twelve Links of Dependent Origination. Among these, the most significant forces are ignorance and craving-clinging. Ignorance is the root of samsara, leading to a series of problems that follow. But what roles do craving and clinging play? Sentient beings enter this world and engage with their surroundings through six sense faculties—eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind. When these six senses come into contact with their six objects—form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental phenomena—we experience various feelings. If we do not maintain mindfulness at this stage, we are likely to fall into our habitual patterns, clinging to pleasant experiences and reacting with aversion to unpleasant ones. In reality, the six sense objects are merely external conditions. The effect they have on us depends entirely on the state of our mind. If we remain unattached to external objects, they will not affect us.
The reason sentient beings are bound in samsara and unable to liberate themselves is precisely due to craving and clinging. Emotion, in a sense, is like a rope; whatever we care about becomes what binds us. The Dharma teaches us that sentient beings are “bound by ignorance, entangled in the bonds of craving, and circulate in the long night of samsara, not knowing the true nature of suffering.” Overall, human emotion and love are characterized by ignorance, greed, and self-attachment. However, not all emotions are negative; otherwise, we would be no different from inanimate objects, unable to engage in spiritual cultivation. The great compassion of buddhas and bodhisattvas represents a higher form of emotion, transcending the defiled, limited, and attached emotions to a state of equality, infinity, and purity. Therefore, the key lies in using wisdom to see the true nature of emotion—freeing it from ignorance, greed, and self-attachment—and learning to manage and elevate it.
学佛是对众生的大爱
3. Studying Buddhism Cultivates Great Love for All Beings.
Renouncing worldly life requires one to let go of possessive attachments to worldly emotions—whether familial love, romantic affection, or attachment to material things. From the perspective of ordinary beings, this may appear to be emotionless. But we must understand: Why does renunciation need to let go of these attachments? As mentioned earlier, worldly emotions are rooted in ignorance, greed, and self-attachment. They are the causes of samsara and the source of endless suffering. Letting go of such emotions does not mean becoming indifferent or emotionally numb like a piece of wood. Rather, it is about cultivating a form of pure, untainted emotion.
Within the monastic community, do monks have emotional connections with one another? Do Buddhist practitioners have feelings toward the Three Jewels? Of course they do. This is known as Dharma-based affection—a type of emotion founded on faith and reverence, and free from attachment or defilement. Monastics should cultivate pure and untainted emotions not only toward the Three Jewels, their teachers, and fellow practitioners, and should also develop compassion for all sentient beings. Such feelings must be grounded in wisdom and the understanding of no-self, rather than in ignorance, greed, and self-attachment. These two forms of emotion are fundamentally different.
To cultivate undefiled emotions, we must first let go of those that are defiled. Consider the emotions we hold in this world—are they not exhausting to sustain? Especially in today’s society, we lack moral restraint within, while the external world is filled with countless temptations. Our emotions are facing an unprecedented test. Without a sufficient level of mutual trust, suspicion easily gives rise to conflicts, disputes, and even crime. When the strain of such emotions accumulates beyond a certain point, we naturally begin to long for emotions that are free from defilement.
Emotions are also subject to the principle of dependent origination. The key lies in how we perceive and interact with others. In studying and practicing the Dharma, we use Buddhist wisdom to adjust our understanding and transform our mindset. In doing so, we gradually foster untainted emotions and reduce tainted ones. When wholesome conditions come together, even a worldly partner can become a companion on the path to awakening—a Bodhi partner, creating a pure and harmonious Buddhist family.
There is a saying, “Great compassion is the mind of the Buddha.” This great compassion is not the sentimental or excessive kind commonly spoken of. It refers to a boundless love for all sentient beings, an all-encompassing, pure, and infinite love. In this world, how many people can we love? Perhaps a few in our family or a small group? If we can extend our love to all the people of a city or even a country, that is already remarkable. But to give rise to bodhicitta is to vow to benefit all sentient beings and to help them free from suffering and attain true happiness. This includes all humanity, all animals, and even celestial beings and those in the hell realms. Such noble altruistic aspiration arises from boundless love for all sentient beings.
Furthermore, we must carry this great love into practice endlessly, throughout all future time. In the The Practices and Vows of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, each great vow concludes with the following lines: “As long as space endures, as long as beings remain, as long as their karma and afflictions persist, my aspiration too shall have no end. From moment to moment it continues without interruption, and in the actions of body, speech, and mind, there is no weariness or fatigue.” These words are the solemn promise of buddhas and bodhisattvas to all sentient beings. Compared with this, what weight do worldly vows of everlasting love truly carry?
It is thus clear that Buddhist practitioners are by no means emotionless; rather, they embody great compassion and universal love. From the Buddhist perspective, all sentient beings are our relatives in the endless cycle of rebirth. As the teachings say: “Every man has been my father, and every woman my mother; throughout countless lifetimes, I have received birth through them all.” Since all beings have been our fathers, mothers, brothers, and sisters, what reason do we have not to love them and hold them in compassion? And what reason do we have not to help them free from suffering and attain happiness?
The buddhas and bodhisattvas are the paragons of this great love. It is a love rooted in wisdom, free from ignorance and self-attachment. It is a love that is pure, untouched by defilement or possessiveness. It is a love that is impartial, without preference, bias, or discrimination. It is a love that is boundless, like sunlight that shines on all things, like the earth that supports all beings—no sentient being is ever left out.
A popular internet term called “Buddha-like” has recently emerged. It refers to a laid-back and indifferent attitude toward life, often expressed as “whatever is fine” or “nothing really matters,” and has given rise to phrases such as Buddha-like youth, Buddha-like parents, and Buddha-like lifestyles. Although this trend is mostly playful and not directed at Buddhism, it spreads quickly across the internet. As a result, it has become one of the most common contemporary misunderstandings of Buddhist teachings. This misunderstanding may be related to the Buddhist idea of “adapting to conditions,” which some people take to mean a passive attitude of letting things drift. Yet in Buddhism, this is not its true meaning.
1. 学佛首先要认识因缘
1. Studying Buddhism Begins with Understanding Causes and Conditions
The “conditions” in the phrase “adapting to conditions” come from the Buddhist concept of causes and conditions. The fundamental principle of Buddhism is the law of cause and effect—namely, “All phenomena arise due to causes and conditions, and all phenomena perish due to causes and conditions.” In this context, “cause” refers to the primary internal factor, while “condition” refers to the external supporting factors. To produce a result, a cause must be activated by the right conditions. If the essential conditions are not available, the cause will not give rise to a result—at least for the time being. It is like a seed: without supporting conditions such as soil and water, it cannot sprout or bear fruit.
Buddhism does not endorse the idea of randomness, as it does not regard phenomena as arising merely by chance. Nor is it fatalism, which holds that everything is predetermined by past lives. It is also not theistic creationism, which believes that all things are created and governed by a divine being. Instead, Buddhism is founded on the principle of dependent origination, which teaches: “When this exists, that comes to be; when this arises, that arises. When this does not exist, that does not come to be; when this ceases, that ceases.” This means that all phenomena are mere false appearances arising from conditions and relationships, each influencing the other.
The Avatamsaka School of Chinese Buddhism takes the idea of dependent origination to its highest level, teaching that “one is all.” This means that every single point in the universe is related to the whole universe, containing all the essence of the universe. Modern scientific ideas such as the holographic paradigm and the butterfly effect likewise suggest that the universe is an integrated whole in which everything is interconnected. Within this vast web lie endless chains of causes and conditions—some wholesome and pure, others tainted and unwholesome.
The world we perceive is shaped by our cognitive capacity, along with our feelings, experiences, and needs. Therefore, our perception is not objective but influenced by various factors. To address the limitations of individual perspective, modern society has developed tools such as the “Six Thinking Hats” method, a type of thinking training. The goal is to draw upon the collective wisdom of many minds and examine the issues from different angles. Since personal experience is often limited in perspective, it is helpful for everyone to contribute different ways of thinking. When these perspectives are brought together, we gain a more comprehensive and objective understanding of the matter and its related conditions.
2. 随缘和进取
2. Adapting to Conditions and Striving for Progress
So, what problems does “adapting to conditions” solve? I often write the phrase “adapt to conditions, embody no-self,” or sometimes in reversed, “embody no-self, adapt to conditions.” This shows that adapting to conditions is not the same as going with the ego, nor is it about being careless, indifferent, or simply doing whatever one feels like. The premise of adapting to conditions is to step beyond self-centered perception, to see all kinds of causes and conditions with a rational and open mind, and then make wise choices. It is active, not passive, definite, not ambiguous. It does not mean blindly following whatever condition arises, or doing whatever others ask of you without discernment.
Some may ask: Doesn’t Buddhism teach that we should “adapt to the needs of sentient beings”? We must understand that this does not mean we yield to others in every way. If someone intends to commit an unwholesome karma, should we become their accomplice? In Buddhism, to “adapt to the needs of sentient beings” means first seeing clearly the causes and conditions, and then understanding what kind of guidance is most appropriate for each person at that moment. From this perspective, we first bring joy to others, and then skillfully guide them in a positive direction. Ultimately, the goal is always to benefit sentient beings. In contrast, worldly forms of blind compliance—such as parents spoiling their children by giving them everything they ask for—often do more harm than good.
The wisdom of adapting to conditions is extremely important. Whether in worldly matters or transcendent pursuits, nothing can be accomplished without a clear and accurate understanding of causes and conditions. Only by carefully observing and evaluating the objective conditions can we make the right choices.
(2) 随缘和进取
(2) Adapting to Conditions and Striving for Progress
People often assume that striving for success represents effort, while adapting to conditions implies passivity or inaction. This is a misunderstanding of what “adapting to conditions” truly means. In reality, it is through adapting to conditions that we can advance more effectively. Without the wisdom of dependent origination—without seeing things in a comprehensive and objective way, our efforts are often in vain. We often hear people complain, “I have already worked so hard. Why am I still not successful?” Such frustration often stems from a lack of wisdom in adapting to conditions. On one hand, do we strive toward the right direction? If we try to reach the south while heading toward the north, no amount of effort will get us to our goal. On the other hand, personal effort is only one part of the entire web of causes and conditions. True success requires the coming together of many supporting conditions—some of which may be outside our awareness or beyond our control. Once we realize this, we can avoid unnecessary afflictions when we have done our best.
From a Buddhist perspective, what people commonly refer to as “assessing the right time and situation” is precisely the precondition for adapting to conditions. It means that when we undertake something, we should make an objective evaluation and adopt appropriate methods. Only then can our effort become truly effective, allowing us to achieve greater results with less exertion. Conversely, if we lack a clear understanding of the situation or fail to use skillful means, we may expend great effort yet gain little in return. Thus, adapting to conditions and striving for progress are mutually facilitating.
Think about it: isn’t this kind of wisdom needed for anything we do in life? We should first clarify our goals, then follow the causes and conditions of the present moment, and adopt methods appropriate to them. Actually, this is the same for spiritual practice. We know that the Buddha taught the Three Vehicles and 84,000 Dharma Gates, each suited to the varying capacities of sentient beings. These teachings too are manifestations of adapting to conditions. In accordance with diverse causes and conditions of all beings, he provided the teachings most suitable for them.
3. 随缘对修行和人生的意义
3. The Meaning of Adapting to Conditions in Practice and Life
Buddhism originated in India, a land where religion and philosophy were highly developed. Among the many spiritual teachers and religious traditions of the time, why was it that only the Buddha discovered the path of awakening and the method to end suffering? The key lies in this: the Buddha identified the true cause of samsara.
Human life is filled with all kinds of suffering. We can say that the entire span of human civilization—over five thousand years—has been an ongoing effort to find ways to alleviate suffering. From primitive agriculture in ancient times to today’s era of artificial intelligence, material conditions have improved dramatically. We now enjoy comforts and conveniences that people in the past could scarcely imagine. And yet, our suffering and affliction have not diminished—in some ways, they may have even increased. We no longer suffer from hunger or cold, yet is the hollowness of the mind not a kind of hunger? And does human indifference not chill the mind just as deeply?
To resolve our suffering, we must identify its true causes from the perspective of wisdom. According to Buddhism, the root cause of all suffering comes from the internal states of greed, anger, and ignorance. They give rise to negative mindsets like jealousy, anxiety, loneliness, and insecurity. However, our efforts made over the past five thousand years of civilization have mainly focused on improving external conditions and material circumstances. This approach has only led to an increasing demand without addressing the underlying issues. It is like being seriously ill and only putting numbing medicine on the wound or covering it with decoration: apart from brief comfort or self-deception, can it really cure the disease?
The reason Buddhism can eliminate suffering is that the Buddha identified its root causes of it—our inner delusion and afflictions. These are the fundamental sources of human suffering and even the cause of all the world’s disasters. If we fail to recognize and address the true causes of our suffering at their root, our other efforts will only provide temporary relief. For instance, when we feel lonely, we might seek companionship or watch television. However, these actions only distract us from the immediate pain. The underlying cause of loneliness, however, remains untouched. As long as this cause remains, no amount of temporary relief will suffice. Its effectiveness diminishes over time, much like how antibiotics can lead to resistant bacteria. The same remedy will quickly lose their effectiveness, requiring larger doses or newer approaches. Yet, as long as those harmful mental patterns exist within us, they are always poised to create further distress and suffering, and perpetuate samsara.
Beneath the Bodhi tree, Shakyamuni Buddha, through contemplating the Twelvefold Dependent Arising, uncovered the true causes of suffering and the source of sentient beings’ cyclic birth and death. At the same time, he realized that every sentient being has the potential for enlightenment, capable of fundamentally resolving delusion and afflictions. After his enlightenment, the Buddha spent forty-five years teaching sentient beings the methods to alleviate suffering. These teachings include the practices of listening, contemplating, and practicing; the precepts, concentration, and wisdom; the Noble Eightfold Path; the Four Noble Truths; and the Great Bodhisattva Path of the Mahayana that affirms all sentient beings can become Buddhas. This is the wisdom of dependent origination. This revelation provides hope and salvation for all lives.
Whether in worldly endeavors or transcendent realization, true accomplishment requires a clear understanding of dependent origination, followed by diligent and skillful effort in accordance with conditions. Therefore, following conditions and striving forward are not contradictory. To study the Buddha’s teachings is to learn and apply the wisdom of dependent origination. By doing so, we transcend subjective misunderstandings, let go of self-attachment, and view all phenomena from a higher perspective. In daily life, this wisdom enables us to handle various matters—whether in work, family, or relationships—with greater skillfulness and compassion. When unfavorable conditions arise, we accept them calmly, knowing that everything has its causes from the past. When favorable conditions appear, we seize them wisely, recognizing that opportunities come to those who are prepared. In our spiritual practice, we learn to contemplate life and the world through the lens of dependent origination. When we truly understand dependent origination, we can realize emptiness and the true nature of all phenomena. This is the path to awakening and liberation in life.
This lecture has explored the “Life Attitudes of Buddhists” from eight perspectives. On one hand, it seeks to dispel common misunderstandings about Buddhism; on the other, it aims to help people establish a correct understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and benefit from it. The Dharma is a profound wisdom for life. It is not abstract philosophy or empty theory, but the direct realization of the Buddha, and a truth that has been embodied and upheld by generations of great masters and practitioners. Today, this ancient wisdom has spread across the world, transforming the lives of countless people. When our views begin to change, we understand what to choose and what to let go of, how to see the world and how to see life; thereby, our mindset naturally transforms. Over time, mindset forms character, and character shapes the quality of our being. May everyone take the “Life Attitudes of Buddhists” as a mirror for their own worldview, values, and way of living, and practice it in daily life. In doing so, it will bring you lasting benefit.
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EN: single sentence. Missing: entire Medicine Buddha Sutra discussion about meeting material needs, healing illness, and end-of-life care.
### A10. Line 597–598 — Missing end-of-life care continuation
EN ends mid-paragraph. Missing: "所以多数人并没有十分的把握..." and the rest of the end-of-life care discussion.
### A11. Line 657–658 — Missing pure wealth discussion
EN ends after first sentence. Missing: discussion of career choice, precepts, and the relationship between right livelihood and practice.
### A12. Line 660–661 — Missing Diamond Sutra merit comparison
EN missing: the detailed seven-comparison passage from the Diamond Sutra about merit.
---
## B. Grammar
### B1. Line 55 — Subject-verb agreement
```
- being proactive seem positive
+ being proactive seems positive
```
### B2. Line 205 — Parallel structure
```
- find the value of life or understanding the purpose of living
+ find the value of life or understand the purpose of living
```
### B3. Line 292 — Subject-verb agreement
```
- pessimism easily lead to despair
+ pessimism easily leads to despair
```
### B4. Line 394 — Missing space after comma
```
- Dependent Origination,Sentient beings
+ Dependent Origination, sentient beings
```
### B5. Line 493 — Missing auxiliary verb
```
- the Buddha inspired to pursue
+ the Buddha was inspired to pursue
```
### B6. Line 502 — Wrong phrasing
```
- lose their part to guide the public
+ lose their role in guiding the public
```
### B7. Line 517 — Wrong participle
```
- heavenly beings are only indulged in pleasures
+ heavenly beings are only indulging in pleasures
```
### B8. Line 526 — Word order
```
- but do deeply we understand
+ but do we deeply understand
```
### B9. Line 613 — Missing word
```
- and say that neglect their parents
+ and say that they neglect their parents
```
### B10. Line 643 — Redundant "both"
```
- both in both China and abroad
+ both in China and abroad
```
### B11. Line 676 — Subject-verb agreement
```
- community ... actively engage
+ community ... actively engages
```
### B12. Line 877 — Missing conjunction
```
- like glue, binds people together
+ like glue that binds people together
```
### B13. Line 901 — Missing "but"
```
- not only ... and should also
+ not only ... but also
```
### B14. Line 985 — Redundant wording
```
- identified its root causes of it
+ identified its root causes
```
---
## C. Word Choice
### C1. Line 31 — "Cherish life or face death"
CN: 重生还是重死 = "focus on/value life or focus on/value death". "Face death" implies confronting death, not weighing it heavily. Consider: "Focus on life or on death."
### C2. Line 742 — Spelling
```
- Chan adobe
+ Chan abode
```
### C3. Line 820 — "cynicism" for 厌世
CN: 厌世 = world-weariness / pessimism toward life. "Cynicism" (犬儒主义) has different connotations in English.
### C4. "ordination" vs "renunciation" for 出家
Mixed usage throughout. Lines 226, 229, 235, 814, 817 use "ordination" (correct). Other sections use "renunciation." Standardize to "ordination."
### C5. Line 988 — Terminology inconsistency
"Twelvefold Dependent Arising" here vs "Twelve Links of Dependent Origination" elsewhere (line 886 etc.). Standardize.
---
## D. Chapter Numbering
### D1. Line 844 — Wrong Roman numeral
```
- VI. To Love or Not to Love?
+ VII. To Love or Not to Love?
```
### D2. Line 994 — Chapter mismatch
CN: 九、结束语. EN: VIII. Conclusion. Should be IX.
---
## E. PDF Typeset vs DOCX Manuscript — Substantive Differences
The typeset PDF (二排) contains editorial changes not in the DOCX manuscript.
These are documented for reference; which version is authoritative must be decided.
End-of-life chanting assistance is one of the Academy's charitable projects, currently offered primarily to its members and their immediate family. Every training session on this topic draws enthusiastic participation, which reflects a need felt by many families and indeed by society at large. Birth, aging, illness, and death are the four great events of human life. Chinese society in particular has now crossed the threshold into population aging, and the trend is still deepening. The World Health Organization projects that by 2050, 35% of China's population will be over sixty, making it the world's most severely aged nation.\
From another angle, most modern people are preoccupied with material pursuits. They lack a life of faith and care for where the heart finds its true home. When they are young, busy with work and family, they may not feel this acutely; but in old age, with nothing to do, the impoverishment of their inner life becomes starkly apparent. That is why society at large is calling for care of "empty-nest elders." This is certainly worth advocating, but I believe that what is more terrifying than one's children being far away is the emptiness within --- having nothing to lean on. In truth, this void cannot be filled by any amount of companionship. Companionship can only offer temporary consolation --- using familial affection to shift or dilute the fear of approaching death.\
Compared with aging, the simultaneous approach of death is an even more bewildering, disorienting subject that people avoid at all costs. In our default assumptions, death is simply the end and disappearance of this phase of life. But does death really mean extinction, like a lamp going out? Is there an unknown realm after all? How does one walk the final stage of life with dignity? How does one prepare for this? And how should one accept aging and face illness --- with what state of mind? All of these are topics we need to study together.\
The Academy is a study and practice community that provides its members with effective guidance and a supportive environment. The role of its charitable work is, above all, to strengthen the community's cohesion and shared purpose, while offering everyone a platform for putting bodhicitta into practice --- benefiting others to deepen one's study, and deepening one's study to better benefit others. This is the cultivation of wisdom and compassion, each supporting and elevating the other. As for this training, I have looked over the PPT prepared by the Charity Committee. On the whole it is quite comprehensive and represents our volunteers' long-term exploration --- truly worthy of rejoicing. I will now speak on this basis and share some thoughts with you all.
## 一、临终助念与三级修学
## I. End-of-Life Chanting Assistance and the Three-Stage Practice
We usually regard end-of-life chanting assistance as an altruistic act of charity. In fact, it also has a close connection with the Three-Stage Practice, for it can help us arouse and strengthen our mindfulness of death. In the *Lamrim*, mindfulness of death is both an important preliminary practice and an indispensable main practice. From the Path for Persons of Small Capacity --- giving rise to a mind that seeks refuge in the Three Jewels --- through the Path for Persons of Medium Capacity --- giving rise to a mind of renunciation from cyclic existence --- to the Path for Persons of Great Capacity --- severing self-grasping and vowing to benefit others, one can say that mindfulness of death runs through the entire bodhisattva path.\
Yet our usual mindfulness of death tends to stay at the theoretical level: death is certain; the time of death is uncertain; at death, nothing helps except the Dharma... We seem to know these truths, but can we really bring our mindfulness of death to the fore? It is not easy. We clearly know that death is inevitable, yet beyond mentioning it in passing, we may not feel much about it, and find it even harder to give rise to a sense of urgency. Participating in end-of-life care and chanting assistance, however, requires facing death at close range. This impact is tangible; it interprets the Dharma for us in a living way, reminding us that this very moment will also come to us.\
The Tibetan master Pabongkhapa composed a long poem called *Heart Spoon*, which is about how to be mindful of death. It is also a detailed guide for analytical meditation from multiple angles and in all dimensions. I have cited it in my teachings on the *Lamrim* and hope everyone will recite it often --- it can serve as a sharp blow to the head. We are always accustomed to believing there is still tomorrow, tomorrow after tomorrow, and so while studying the Dharma, we spend even more time recalling the five desires and six dusts, chasing after flowers in the mirror and the moon on the water. But one day, death arrives faster than tomorrow --- suddenly, you must leave at once. What then? Are we prepared? Of everything we have striven for in this life, what can we take with us? If we can truly bring forth our mindfulness of death, we will naturally practice with diligence and naturally take the Three Jewels as our sole refuge --- because at that moment, family, career, and wealth are things we cannot hold onto and cannot help us.\
For the practice of mindfulness of death, end-of-life chanting assistance is a real-world exercise that brings learning and contemplation down to earth. It is an effective and powerful supportive condition. At the same time, it helps us cultivate the altruistic mind. At that critical moment when a life faces the question of where to go next, we participate in chanting assistance with a mind of compassion. We are not only offering the dying person (or the deceased) the last help they can receive in this life, but this help will also directly affect the future direction of that life. Think about it and you will see how profoundly meaningful this is. On the journey of life, many choices affect one's destiny for a lifetime. But the choice with the greatest impact is none other than the choice made at the juncture of life and death. It is an ending, but even more so a new beginning, and it bears directly on the future direction of that life.\
In terms of practical results, leaving aside the benefit received by the deceased and their family (see the end-of-life care section of the Academy's website for relevant cases), the chanting assistants themselves often become more diligent in their study and practice, and more gentle in their mental states as a result of participating in this charitable activity. At the same time, it strengthens the cohesion of the entire class. Clearly, benefiting others and benefiting oneself are indeed united: when we resolve to benefit others with a sincere heart, we ourselves become the first beneficiaries. The more genuine and thorough this resolve, the greater the benefit we receive accordingly.
How do we provide proper end-of-life chanting assistance? This requires some understanding of death --- knowing what issues arise at each stage, how to respond, and how to guide the dying person (or the deceased). In traditional Chinese culture, death is a subject to be avoided, so we rarely receive education on how to view death, much less on how to help those struggling at the threshold of life and death. The problem is that this is an outcome everyone must face --- avoidance can only set it aside, not resolve it. Buddhism, by contrast, places its emphasis on understanding life and death, transcending cyclic existence, and moving toward liberation. In this respect it fills a significant gap in Chinese culture.\
Buddhism holds that one phase of life consists of four stages. The first is birth existence --- the moment of taking rebirth. The second is life existence --- the entire course of this life excluding the moments of birth and death. The third is death existence --- the instant of dying. The fourth is intermediate existence --- the bardo state between the death of this life and the birth of the next. This is the part that many people find most mysterious and most difficult to understand. To put it simply, the intermediate existence is a transitional period, like the idle interval after resigning from a job --- the old position is already lost and a new one has not yet been found. As for what kind of work one can begin next, this certainly relates to one's abilities and other factors, but to a great extent it also depends on whether one can seize the opportunity during this transitional phase and turn one's destiny around.\
The intermediate existence, also called bardo, is extensively documented in the Buddhist scriptures. The *Yogacarabhumi-Sastra* states: "Further, this intermediate existence, if it has not yet obtained the conditions for rebirth, lasts for a maximum of seven days. If it obtains the conditions for rebirth, the duration is not fixed. If after a maximum of seven days it has not obtained the conditions for rebirth, it dies and is reborn again, lasting for a maximum of seven days. In this way, revolving again and again, if it has not obtained the conditions for rebirth, it will continue for up to seven times seven days. After this, it will definitely obtain the conditions for rebirth." The lifespan of the bardo being is measured in seven-day cycles. If the causes and conditions for rebirth appear during this period, it will enter birth existence from intermediate existence and begin the next phase of life. But rebirth is not a matter of wishful thinking. Whether one can be reborn, and where, depends on whether these causes and conditions have matured. Some people have especially strong good karma or especially strong bad karma and may be reborn very quickly. If the conditions for rebirth are absent, after seven days the bardo being will die and be reborn once, continuing to seek an opportunity. But within a maximum of seven cycles --- that is, forty-nine days --- it will certainly find a place of rebirth.\
What end-of-life chanting assistance does is to help the person bring forth and sustain right mindfulness before death and then, during the bardo stage, to make an accurate choice, transforming the course of drifting with karma and even gaining the opportunity to be reborn in the Pure Land. So, what are the main forces that determine where one takes rebirth?\
The first is going with weight --- it depends on the relative weight of one's karma. At the time of rebirth, whichever karmic force is heaviest will determine one's direction. It is like a tree falling: it leans toward whichever branch is the thickest. Across life after life in cyclic existence, every being has committed unwholesome deeds and also cultivated wholesome ones. At this moment, these karmic forces determine the future direction of that life. When the retribution of the heavy karma is exhausted, the lighter karma is then experienced in turn.\
The second is going with habit --- it depends on one's habitual tendencies built up over time. These are habits cultivated over long periods: whatever one likes, one will choose, thereby evoking the corresponding life trajectory. Especially for those who have done no particularly great good or great evil, the power of habitual tendencies will manifest even more prominently.\
The third is going with thought --- it depends on the mental state at the time of death. This is similar to what we would call on-the-spot performance. For instance, someone may have conducted themselves well in daily life, but at the moment of death they encounter adverse conditions and give rise to intense anger, potentially falling into the animal realm or hell realm. Conversely, through the wholesome condition of chanting assistance, if the person gives rise to a wholesome mind at the time of death, they may be guided toward a good realm or even be reborn in the Pure Land. This is why the final thought is so critically important. It is like having many boats before us --- this boat leads to the heavenly realms, this boat leads to the human realm, this boat leads to the hells... whichever boat you step onto will carry you in that direction. Very likely, a single thought at this juncture can send a life in an entirely different direction. Because this thought arises at the most pivotal moment, its effect is especially powerful. These days, many people's final moments are truly tragic: either children quarrel over inheritance and turn against one another; or family members wail and weep, only adding to attachment; or they lie in a hospital with tubes everywhere, tormented until death... Under such circumstances, what kind of "final thought" would arise, and where would it lead?\
This is why psychological guidance is especially important in end-of-life care. In recent years, places such as Taiwan have begun to promote palliative care --- providing psychological support to patients with terminal illnesses and no prospect of cure, so that in the final stage of life their hearts have a place to rest and they may attain a good death. This is not only a benefit for the dying but also comfort and guidance for their families. In this respect, Buddhism indeed has a unique and profound advantage.\
This is because all three major traditions of Buddhism, down to each of its schools and lineages, possess complete theoretical systems and practical experience concerning the matter of life and death. These views and practices are not products of abstract speculation but were personally verified by Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and great masters through their practice, and have been emulated and confirmed by generations of Buddhist disciples --- they are genuinely practicable. Furthermore, Mahayana practitioners take compassion and benefiting the world as their own responsibility. Extending a helping hand to the deceased, enabling them to leave suffering and attain happiness, is an inescapable mission. In addition, Buddhism's Pure Land path takes Buddha-name recitation and rebirth as its central practice. Over more than a thousand years of transmission, generations of eminent masters have emerged, leaving behind extensive teachings on both the theoretical framework and practical guidance, and it commands broad influence and a vast base of followers.
Death is terrifying mainly for two reasons. One is clinging to life --- a reluctance to let go of everything one currently possesses. The other is fear of death --- not knowing where one will go in the future. One is unwilling to part, yet part one must; one does not wish to die, yet die one must. For those without religious faith, when they are young they may brush it off with "death is like a lamp going out," but when death truly looms near, are they really without fear? In reality, we see all kinds of manifestations: terror, anxiety, despondency... Those who are not afraid are either fearless out of ignorance or simply numb. So from what angles should we guide the dying person so that their mind is no longer bewildered and can find its true home?\
First, we must help the dying person recognize that birth, aging, illness, and death are natural laws. Just as spring goes and autumn comes, just as the four seasons cycle, human life too unfolds in this recurring rhythm of cyclic existence. Before us, countless people have died; after us, countless more will die. One could say that birth already determines the outcome of death. This is a reality occurring around us at every moment, and no one can escape it. Therefore, what we should focus on is not "I am going to die," but rather how to die and how to begin a new journey of life.\
Second, we must help the dying person resolve the panic over where they are heading. Before we prepare to step in and provide end-of-life care, we need to know something about the recipient --- especially what good deeds and charitable acts they have done, and what admirable qualities they possess. In this way, we can guide them to give rise to a wholesome mind by recalling these good deeds, and then to rest in wholesome thoughts. Even if these good deeds are very small, we must find ways to evoke them and channel them in a positive direction, allowing the person to build confidence about the future and to find joy and inspiration in a good rebirth. The precepts also say that when a practitioner is facing death, one should offer praise and commendation tailored to their daily conduct. For example, if the person practiced asceticism, or recited sutras, observed precepts, taught the Dharma, meditated, or managed monastic affairs, one should praise them according to the merit of their practice so that they "recollect the merit they have cultivated and contemplate their pure livelihood, giving rise to no sorrow or distress." The Vinaya also records that according to Indian custom, whether monastic or lay, when someone was approaching death, the relatives and friends keeping vigil would, before the person's sense faculties failed, recount for them the good deeds they had performed in this life, so that the sick person's mind would be gladdened, their right mindfulness undisturbed, and they would be reborn in a good realm.\
Third, we must help the dying person establish an ultimate spiritual home. If the dying person already has faith in Buddhism, or at least a favorable disposition toward it even without faith, we can guide them to learn about the magnificence of the Western Pure Land, about the merits of Amitabha Buddha and his forty-eight great vows. Help the dying person believe that as long as they wholeheartedly recollect Amitabha Buddha, their minds in mutual resonance, they will receive the Buddha's protection and blessing. When a person is at the threshold of death, it is like struggling in water until body and mind are utterly exhausted, longing only to grasp hold of something as a support --- this makes it easier to give rise to a mind of reliance. Even if they had little faith before, at this moment, because they are full of fear about the future, as long as we guide them properly and skillfully, they may still give rise to genuine faith and earnest aspiration toward Amitabha Buddha, holding tightly to the Buddha's name, resonating with the Buddha's great compassion, and being embraced by the power of his great vows.\
Once these psychological foundations are in place, we must beseech Amitabha Buddha, Guanyin Bodhisattva, Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva, and all the Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the ten directions for their compassionate embrace, so that the dying person may be freed from fear. We then remind them: your life will soon come to an end; Amitabha Buddha is your sole reliance. You must recollect him with utmost sincerity and devotedly take refuge in him. Next, we tell the dying person that during the process of taking rebirth in the bardo state, all kinds of images and appearances will manifest. Whatever you are drawn to, that is what will appear. But these states often arise from the habitual tendencies of greed, anger, and ignorance. They may be connected with the hell realms, with the hungry ghost realm, or with the animal realm. Therefore, you must never be swayed by these appearances. You must rest firmly in the Buddha's name and recollect Amitabha single-mindedly.\
At present, the Academy's end-of-life chanting assistance is mainly directed at the family members of our members. Since these people have not yet entered the Three-Stage Practice, the emphasis is on recollecting Amitabha's sacred name and vowing to be reborn in the Western Pure Land. When it comes to Academy members themselves, we can guide them by chanting the "Three Refuges" so they may rest in the merit of the Three Jewels. In addition, we must remind the dying person not to forget the bodhicitta vows they once made --- to rest in the powerful force of that bodhicitta resolve, awaken oneself and others, never retreating.
There are generally two scenarios for chanting assistance: one is stepping in before the person is dying, and the other is participating after they have passed away. In the former case, various issues such as changes in the patient's condition may arise. This calls for proper arrangements based on the patient's state, together with an assessment of the chanting assistants' own circumstances, so that the effort does not lose momentum or become unsustainable. Since this is a regular charitable activity, it must be undertaken according to everyone's available time and energy; otherwise it will be difficult to sustain in the long term.\
For the dying person, physical suffering and mental suffering are often intertwined. And in many cases, mental suffering can far outweigh physical suffering. This is especially true for those with terminal illnesses: after learning of their condition, most are burdened with a heavy psychological load that aggravates the illness and plunges them into a vicious cycle in which physical and mental suffering continually reinforce each other. Under such circumstances, we need to guide the person from their own perspective. All beings cling to life and fear death. Except for practitioners who wholeheartedly aspire to be reborn in the Pure Land, we need not start directly with the topic of rebirth for others. Instead, we can share the benefits of Buddha-name recitation from the angle of eliminating karmic obstacles and alleviating the suffering of illness.\
For instance, if someone is especially terrified of death and you tell them, "Hurry up and recite the Buddha's name to be reborn in the Pure Land," they will naturally resist it. It would be better to first tell them that reciting the Buddha's name can invoke the Buddha's protection, dispel calamities, and prolong life. Once they accept this, you can then tell them, as appropriate, that if your time to die has not yet come, reciting the Buddha's name can bring you longevity; if your time has come, reciting the Buddha's name can lead you to be reborn in the Land of Ultimate Bliss. In short, whether you live or die, reciting the Buddha's name brings extraordinary benefit.\
At the same time, we must find ways to encourage family members to join the dying person in reciting the Buddha's name. For the dying person, this is not only the comfort of sharing hardship together, but also the strength of fighting side by side. These arrangements can, on the one hand, reduce the burden on the chanting assistants so that volunteers are not overstretched; on the other hand, they can edify the family members and become an occasion for them to encounter the Buddhadharma. Because of their usual indifference to aging, illness, and death, many family members are psychologically unprepared. Once a family member is seriously ill or dying, they are thrown into confusion, not knowing what to do. At such a time, if we guide them properly --- appealing to both heart and reason --- it is still relatively easy for them to accept.\
When we go to the actual location to offer chanting assistance, we must also pay attention to our outward appearance and manner of communication. First, we should assess the venue and consider what identity to present, what clothing to wear, and what approach the recipients will find more acceptable --- we need not always wear the uniform attire or the Academy jacket. In verbal communication as well, we should adjust according to the actual situation. For example, in forms of address, should we use Buddhist terms of address or those common in everyday society? For Buddhists, we can communicate freely using Dharma language; but for those who have not studied the Dharma, we should minimize the religious coloring as much as possible and care for them on the psychological level. Furthermore, we should communicate according to whether the person is prepared for death, and while trying as much as possible not to touch upon sensitive topics, gradually bring them into the context that needs to be addressed.\
In addition, the environment for chanting assistance is very important. The space should be swept clean. A dignified Buddha image should be enshrined, with its size chosen according to the setting, so that the dying person has a tangible sense of the Buddha and bodhisattvas and thereby gives rise to a mind of reverence, respect, and reliance. Offerings such as incense, flowers, lamps, water, and fruit may be arranged as appropriate. If the venue is a public space, try to keep things low-key to avoid creating adverse conditions.\
In chanting, aspects such as the tone, volume, and tempo should all respect the recipient's habits --- do not proceed in a self-centered way. Especially for those at the final moment, one must observe carefully and make proper arrangements according to the person's physical strength and degree of receptivity, never allowing the dying person or their family to give rise to affliction. If you are participating after the recipient has passed away, first decide on the duration of chanting assistance based on factors such as the number and stamina of the volunteers involved --- for example, whether to continue for eight hours or longer, whether to proceed continuously day and night, and so on --- and then arrange a rotation schedule. Usually, groups of four are suitable; otherwise, the chanting power may be insufficient. In assigning personnel, pay attention to pairing experienced chanting assistants with newcomers. At the same time, guide and encourage family members to participate, for this is the final help they can offer their loved one. Do not let them miss this opportunity and later be filled with regret. When manpower is insufficient, a Buddha-name recitation device can be used to chant together.\
The effectiveness of chanting assistance depends to a great extent on the faith that the dying person and the participants have in Amitabha Buddha. Among faith, vow, and practice, faith comes first. Therefore, before the chanting begins, we should first proclaim the power of Amitabha Buddha's vows and merits, enabling everyone to give rise to a mind of sincere refuge in Amitabha Buddha and a mind of boundless yearning for the Western Pure Land. When one chants with such faith, the chanting will be genuine, thorough, and powerful. Otherwise, if one's faith in Amitabha Buddha is half-hearted and one's attitude toward the Western Pure Land is "go or not, either way," then even if one chants along with the group, what power does it carry? Likewise, if reciting the Three Refuges, we should first proclaim the merits of the Three Jewels. Only when the mind is properly attuned can each utterance of the Buddha's name become the provisions for liberation.
Beyond chanting assistance, there are certain matters requiring special attention after the deceased has passed away. For instance, many families, when arranging funeral rites, lay on lavish meat banquets, taking life and causing death, thinking this shows proper grandeur. They are unaware that this karma of killing brings tremendous harm to both themselves and the deceased. We must communicate with the family skillfully, helping them understand the dangers of killing and what is truly beneficial to the deceased. Guide them to take the money that would have been squandered on extravagance and use it instead to perform extensive good deeds, dedicating the merit to the deceased. The forty-nine days after death are especially crucial, for the bardo being may not yet have taken rebirth or determined its destination. The merit created during this period may take immediate effect and become the direct force that determines where the being will go.\
The Ullambana ceremony we are all familiar with originated from Venerable Maudgalyayana's deliverance of his deceased mother. Because his mother had created extremely heavy karma during her life, she fell into the hungry ghost realm after death. Although the Venerable was foremost among the Buddha's disciples in spiritual powers, he was powerless to save his mother and could only beseech the Buddha for help. The Buddha instructed him to make offerings of food and drink of a hundred flavors to the Sangha on the fifteenth day of the seventh month --- the day of Pavarana, when the monastic community completes its three-month rains retreat. Through the merit of this offering, his mother was able to leave suffering and attain happiness. The day of Pavarana is when the Sangha, having begun their rains retreat on the fifteenth day of the fourth month and practiced diligently for three months, reaches completion. On this day, humans and devas offer praise and all Buddhas rejoice, so the merit of making offerings to the Sangha on this day is especially great. The *Ullambana Sutra* states: "Those disciples of the Buddha who cultivate filial conduct should, thought after thought, recollect their parents, extending to parents of seven lives past. Each year on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, they should always, with filial love and compassion, remember the parents who gave them birth and make an Ullambana offering to the Buddha and Sangha, thereby repaying the kindness of their parents who raised them with loving care." This is true filial piety, and true benefit to the deceased.\
The *Sutra of the Fundamental Vows of the Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha* tells us: "If, furthermore, within forty-nine days after death, one can extensively create abundant good deeds on their behalf, this can enable those beings to forever leave the evil realms and be reborn among humans and devas, receiving supreme and wondrous happiness." "Extensively creating abundant good deeds" may mean releasing living beings, sponsoring the printing of sutras, making offerings to the Three Jewels; or going to a monastery to sponsor a *pǔfó* (Buddha-name ceremony), so that monastics dedicate the merit to the deceased during morning and evening services; or giving to the poor and participating in charitable works in the name of the deceased. The key is to act swiftly, with a pure altruistic mind, and then dedicate the merit to the deceased. The sutra also records that Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva, while still on the path to enlightenment, learned that his mother was suffering in the hells and other evil realms. He gave rise to great compassion and, before the Buddhas of the ten directions, made this sincere vow: "From now until the end of hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭis of eons, for all worlds that exist, I vow to deliver all beings suffering for their offenses in the hells and the three evil realms, causing them to leave the hells, the evil realms, the animal realm, the hungry ghost realm, and so forth. Only after all such beings undergoing karmic retribution have attained Buddhahood will I myself attain perfect awakening." This is the renowned vow, "Until the hells are empty, I shall not become a Buddha." As soon as he made this great vow, his mother was immediately liberated from suffering.\
所以说，我们不仅要重视助念，还要了解什么是对亡者有益的，才能众缘和合，送他们走好今生的最后一程。
Thus we must not only value chanting assistance but also understand what is truly beneficial to the deceased. Only then can we bring together all favorable conditions and help them walk well the final stretch of this life.
Participating in chanting assistance is a practice of bodhicitta. It is also a way for us to preview in advance the important life lesson of death, guiding us to use this occasion to give rise to a genuine mindfulness of death, to a sense of urgency --- "practice diligence as though putting out a fire on your head" --- and to a mind of taking refuge and reliance in the Three Jewels. It is a precious opportunity to benefit both ourselves and others! If we regard chanting assistance merely as charity and do not connect it with our own study and practice, we will easily become weary or retreat in the face of setbacks. If, however, we can combine the two, then chanting assistance is not only an altruistic act of goodness but also an opportunity for our own mental growth. In this way, we will cherish every opportunity to offer chanting assistance rather than grow tired of it; we will feel gratitude for the life-demonstration of the deceased rather than treating it as a task to complete.\
Once our mental attitude is properly attuned, we can go further in learning the various matters related to chanting assistance, including how to offer psychological guidance and how to chant properly. More importantly, after each session of chanting assistance, we should continuously reflect on our experience and learn the lessons. Let chanting assistance become a collective practice of bodhicitta. May all beings, sheltered by the compassionate light of the Three Jewels, receive the Buddha's blessing and protection, leave suffering, and attain happiness.
Translation quality: **excellent**. Accurate terminology, fluent English prose, correct Buddhist register throughout. Line count, heading count, and paragraph alignment all match. No mechanical issues (em-dashes, Chinese punctuation, markdown artifacts).
## Findings
### Fixed
1. Source TOC had `[text](#anchor)\` markdown link format — replaced with clean bullet list matching target convention.
### Notes (informational, no action needed)
1. L51: "不必直接从往生切入" → "need not start directly with the topic of rebirth." The term 往生 in Pure Land context specifically means "rebirth in the Pure Land" — the target uses the more generic "rebirth." In context (preceded by mention of Buddha-name recitation), the meaning is clear enough.
2. Terminology alignment with terms DB is solid across all key Buddhist terms: 三级修学→Three-Stage Practice, 道次第→Lamrim, 中有→intermediate existence, 往生净土→rebirth in the Pure Land, etc. Consistent usage throughout the file.
3. Transliteration: "Amitabha" and "Amitabha Buddha" both appear — acceptable stylistic variation. "Kṣitigarbha" uses diacritics consistently for academic register.
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iacore